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ON DIET 



ESSAYS ON DIET 



BY 



FRANCIS WILLIAM NEWMAN 

EMERITUS PROFESSOR OP LATIN IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDOK 
AUTHOR OF *THE SOUL, ITS SORROWS AND ASPIRATIONS* 

ETC. 



LONDON 
KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, & CO., i PATERNOSTER SQUARE 

1883 




The rights of translation and of reproduction are reserved) 



PREFACE. 



In response to general request these Essays and 
Lectures have been reprinted in their present form. 
They are but selections from a much larger collec- 
tion of contributions made by the learned author 
to current English literature during the past fifteen 
years. This volume includes e.g, papers which 
originally appeared in the * North of England 
Review/ of Newcastle-on-Tyne ; the * Reform 
Union Gazette/ of Manchester (in 1876), and 
* Eraser's Magazine ' (February 1875) ; also lectures 
or addresses which have been given at Manchester 
(October 14, 1868) ; at the Manchester Friends* 
Institute (October 20, 1872) ; at Gloucester 
(December 2, 1870) ; and at the Manchester 
Athenaeum (October 26, 1876). 

That frequent repetition should occur is inevit- 
able from the form adopted and from the origin of 
the several papers here collected together. Yet it 



vi PREFACE. 



cannot surely be too much to hope that such a 
drawback, which neither author nor publishers 
could now rectify, will readily obtain the indul- 
gence of readers who love the investigation of 
truth, and who revere, as all scholars must, the life 
and work of one of the ablest thinkers, clearest 
writers, and sincerest patriots who have adorned 
the English literature of the present century. 



R. B. W. 



CONTENTS. 



-•04- 



PAGE 

I. On luxury in food i-6 

II. On the mission of the vegetarian society . 7-20 

III. What shall we eat? with an inquiry upon 

IMPORTANT FACTS RELEVANT TO OUR CHOICE . 2I-45 

IV. On SOME GRAVE NATIONAL PROBLEMS, WITH ESSAYS 

TOWARDS THEIR SOLUTION, .... 46-^62 

V. What is vegetarianism, and what is its place 

IN the ethics and economics OF OUR TIME? 63-94 

VI. On the RELATION OF THE SUPPLY OF FOOD TO THE 

EXISTING TENURE OF LAND IN ENGLAND . 95-119 

VII. On SOME^ PRESSING PROBLEMS FURTHER AND FINALLY 

•i 

CONSIDERED , I2C-I36 



ESSAYS ON DIET. 



I. 



ON CONSIDERATIONS SUGGESTIVE OF FURTHER INQUIRY 
UPON A SUBJECT OF GRAVE NATIONAL AND INTER- 
NATIONAL IMPORTANCE. 

Most of us are familiar with certain facts of the teetotal 
controversy. We, who oppose wine, beer, and spirits as 
drinks^ do not set ourselves against pleasure in drinking, 
as such ; but we deprecate that form of pleasure which is 
bought too dearly; which is liable to cause what is worse 
than pain, namely, demoralisation. So too it is a suffi- 
cient reason for dissuading the pleasure of flesh-meat, if 
it deprive men of higher and nobler pleasures : for. in- 
stance, if it deprive men of cultivation, leisure, and refine- 
ment, by keeping them poor. Such an argument cannot 
justly be set aside by appealing to the palate. 

Yet, in a highly-respected London weekly paper of no 
small literary pretensions, a leading article, some years 
back, condemned Vegetarianism on grounds which con- 
fess a mean sensuality. It vehemently declared that 
flesh-meat is not necessary to strength or health, and 
treated those as blameably ignorant who were surprized 



ESSAYS ON DIET. 



at the muscular strength and endurance of vegetarians. 
But it went on to say that the main question is, whether, 
in a world which has so few pleasures, it is worth while 
to give up the pleasure which flesh-meat affords to the 
palate. The reader's first thought might be, * Is the 
editor sarcastic, and intending bitterly to show contempt 
for flesh-eaters?' I fear that this interpretation is in- 
admissible, and that we must take his utterance seriously. 
It is a sad parallel to the wine-lover, with whom *I 
like my wine ' is a sufficient reply to every possible ob- 
jection. 

However, we remind such a wine-drinker that tastes 
change ; that wine is not the only nice drink ; that many 
who once loved wine have now ceased to hanker for it ; 
and that it is quite degrading to overrule moral argu- 
ments by an appeal to the palate. All this applies to 
Vegetarianism. First of all, we observe that no one re- 
gards raiv flesh as nice ; it has to be cooked : and scarcely 
any flesh, even after cookery, is nice, without vegetable 
additions, as condiments or sauce. The number of 
vegetable flavours is too many to count. The savoury 
herbs used to dress flesh need no definite mention ; they 
often impart to a dish its familiar flavour, which we are 
apt to ascribe to the fibre of the animal. Even pork and 
ham have their characteristic tastes from the sugar, the 
sage and onion, the apple sauce, the mustard or vinegar. 
I have known a person fancy he was eating roast veal, 
when a compost similar to the usual stuffing of roast veal 
was given him. Boiled mutton dressed like boiled pork 
will puzzle many, and deceive some. Hare is a peculiarly 
high-tasted flesh, yet the stuffing and the red-currant 
jelly have much to do with its niceness. There is no end 
of things delicious to the palate. 

On the one hand, we insist that Man is not tied down 



ESSAYS ON DIET. 



to the alternative of eating flesh-meat or sacrificing enjoy- 
ment of his food ; on the other, we insist that there are other 
pleasures higher and nobler than those of nice savours, 
and there are moral considerations which ought to be 
paramount in our choice of foods. What could an in- 
tellectual man mean by calling this * a world which has so 
few pleasures ? ' Did he possibly mean, that to iht poorest 
and most uncultivated there are no pleasures but those 
of the animal? Was he defending flesh diet for those 
only who have no intellectual pleasures ? Even so ; the 
greatest pleasure of eating depends on keen appetite, not 
on the delicacy of food, were it ever so true that the 
finest of all flavours is that of roast flesh. But a topic 
peculiarly appropriate in this age is, that in our theories 
we aspire towards a state in which all our population 
shall possess so much of refinement and cultivation as to 
make them susceptible of affectional and intellectual 
pleasures; and the great impediment to it is found in 
that waste of resources which sensuality entails. Every 
reasonable man and woman ought to know that the poor 
cannot be lifted above poverty by the benevolence of 
the rich. 

Many who are now poorest, at least in our towns, are 
poorest because they, or their parents, were unthrifty. 
If they continue unthrifty they would fall back again in 
a year or two, though you lifted them several steps up 
to-day. Without self-denial and forethought of the poor 
collectively, the labouring population cannot be raised 
and kept above poverty. We must all be familiarly aware 
how fatal an element beer, cider, and gin are to the 
working population (even when they are not visibly 
drunken) ; for all such drinks waste their surplus means, 
so that they save little or nothing, and live from hand to 
mouth. But is intoxicating drink the sole worker of this 

3 2 



ESSAYS ON DIET, 



mischief? No; we all know how many shillings and 
pounds run away in tobacco ; but many are not aware, or 
may not have reflected, on the needless expenditure 
caused by the addiction to flesh-meat, which in the last 
twenty-five years has enormously increased in the towns, 
side by side with the increased wages of artizans. Hence 
also the increased price of butcher's meat 

Those who have not closely looked into the matter 
seldom know the important fact that in this quarter of a 
century the consumption of mutton, beef, pork, and 
rabbits has not only drawn off* the resources of our 
artizans, but has actually diminished the quantity of food 
raised in the United Kingdom, and made us more de- 
pendent on foreign supply. To understand how this is, 
two possible modes of feeding cattle must be considered. 
When you desire more sheep or oxen you may lay down 
arable land into grass ; that is one way. It may chance 
to pay best to a farmer, and yet is wasteful to the nation. 
For the quantity of human food hence resulting is but 
a fraction of what would be produced by crops of grain 
or pulse, or other valuable food consumed by man. With 
diligent cultivation produce may increase so much that 
it is hard to make a definite statement; but it is not 
extravagant to say that every acre well cultivated would 
feed seven times as many men by its crops as could be 
fed on the flesh of cattle who do but graze on spontaneous 
grasses. But the farmer saves immensely in wages and in 
manure by not cultivating ; and if the price of butcher's 
meat is high, the sale of cattle may well clear his rent ; 
while the nation has an immense loss of food, and the 
rustic population, being less needed for cultivation, is 
driven into the towns to compete with the townsmen and 
beat down wages. 

The case is not so bad when the land is not laid down 



ESSAYS ON DIET. 



in grass, but is cultivated for cattle-food, whether turnips 
or mangel-wurzel, beans or cabbages. In this way it 
feeds more cattle and employs more labourers ; yet, still 
there is a large waste. The food which the cattle eat 
displaces the human food which the same fields might 
have grown. The direct crops, consumed by man, would 
feed a much larger population than can live on the car- 
cases of the cattle : probably, at least three times as 
many. 

To aid in deciding this question, a careful estimate 
was made in the town of Cincinnati, Ohio, where is a 
vast pig-butchery. The quantity of oatmeal used in 
fattening the pigs was noted down, as also the quantity of 
pig-meat produced. It appeared that the oatmeal would 
have gone nearly four times as far as the pork in feeding 
mankind. The difference is expended on giving to the 
pigs the pleasure of living, if this thought comfort any 
one. But our working classes who have raised the price 
of flesh-meat by competing for it, and have induced the 
farmers to work for the butcher rather than for the grain 
market and the greengrocer, have greatly wasted their 
own resources by it. The proof of this is found in the 
fact that vegetarian families, who are almost always 
teetotalers, have much pecuniary advantage over those 
who are teetotalers without being vegetarian. 

What advantage has been gained in the last forty 
years by this change from a cheaper to a more expensive 
diet it seems impossible to say. In whole counties of the 
North, where manufactures are widely spread, it is attested 
that the fathers of the present generation were not less 
strong and healthy, yet scarcely had a bit of butcher's 
meat dftener than once a week. Fat bacon, no doubt, in 
many places, did duty in place of butter ; and if work- 
men restricted themselves to this, it might be pleaded 



ESSAYS ON DIET. 



that it is less expensive than good butter. All the benefit 
that can be reasonably alleged is, that the workmen have 
had a more palatable food. Of course it is their taste, 
besides imitation of the habits of the richer, which has 
drawn them on ; but if they had been better instructed 
as to food, and as to proper cookery, they might have 
had solid and equally savoury dishes of vegetarian food 
at far less expense. 



^^^^KS* ON DIET, 7 



II. 



TOUCHING THE SAME INQUIRY, PURSUED BY THE LIGHT 
OF ILLUSTRATIVE FACTS, AND IN ASSOCIATION WITH 
THOSE WHO HAVE GIVEN THERETO MUCH SPECIAL 
STUDY AND CONTINUOUS EXPERIMENT. 

It is assuredly a noble delight to take part in the doings 
of a triumphant society which counts its advocates by the 
hundred thousand, and is bringing some good cause to a 
successful issue. But, as I feel it, there is also a serene 
pleasure in belonging to a great movement during its 
period of weakness, if we so approve the soundness of 
its basis as to see by faith its future extended honour, 
and its substantial services in each passing year. Unless 
I were able, in some such way, to glorify the Vegetarian 
vSociety, I probably should not have wished to belong to 
it, and could not with propriety speak on its behalf. Yet 
it may not be unacceptable to some to know what are in 
my view the functions and (if I may so phrase it) the 
high caUing of the society. 

The Vegetarian Society, according to my notion, is 
not properly described as having for its end to induce 
men to eat only things vegetable, but to eat naturally, 
healthfully, reasonably, and (if so I may say) spiritually — 
that is, as befits a spiritual being. And because we be- 
lieve that — at least on the whole, at least to the millions 
of our nation — a renunciation of flesh-meat tends directly 



8 ESSA YS ON' DIET. 



to fulfil these conditions, and is a first step of great im- 
portance towards them, therefore we assume our practice 
and our name as Vegetarians. But if one of us become 
addicted to the pleasures of eating, and spend vast sums 
of money in elaborate cookery and delicate food, making 
such indulgences a prominent object of life — in short, 
living to eat, instead of eating to live — I do not think any 
of us would be proud of such a member. His example 
would not seem to us very beneficial to his neighbour- 
hood and acquaintance. If I am right in this belief, our 
society is aiming at a nobler object than that literal and 
petty one which might be sarcastically defined by an 
opponent as living on eggs and refusing chickens. I 
purpose here to develope on what principles our actions 
refute this sarcasm, and rise above it as an intellectual 
and spiritual force. Nay, I must add the society pre- 
sented itself to me first as important on the side of 
political economy ; and although I by no means think it 
to be restricted to an economical aspect, I am persuaded 
that this is an essential part of its service, and that this 
side may beneficially be made very prominent in the 
present condition of England and of Europe. 

It is not by accident that so large a number of the 
members of this society are teetotalers. It would satisfy 
my curiosity if any one could tell me how many per cent, 
of us drink alcoholic liquors and how many per cent, of 
us are smokers. Unquestionably the temperance societies 
and our society are legitimate sisters. Each desires the 
welfare of the million, and is thereby exposed to the 
taunt of seeking to dictate to other people's tastes. Each 
aims at what may be despised as a very narrow object — 
a single step away from vice or towards virtue. Teetotalers 
teach men to beware of that taste for alcohol which strews 
whole nations with wreck and misery. They warn against 



ESSAYS ON DIET, 



the first step towards pauperism, we suggest the first step 
in the right use of wealth. If a nation can be freed from 
intoxicating drinks it will therewith be rid of the great 
mass of violent crime ; but crimes of cun?iing remain to 
be dealt with. The temptation to theft is increased in 
proportion as it is hard to get the necessaries of life. 

No doubt eagerness to obtain luxuries of every kind 
with small or no exertion and with the least delay, is the 
chief motive to great mercantile frauds and forgeries. 
In the luxury of the opulent no large part of the expense 
is caused by eating. But with those who work for wages 
a main expense is under this head. The temptation to 
petty dishonesty is prodigiously greater to the man who 
lives close up to his income and has never a farthing to 
spare, than to him who has always a little surplus ; and 
let it be carefully remembered, that as no one becomes 
a drunkard all at once, so no one reared in industry 
becomes a thief, except from small beginnings. 

I am keenly aware how far mere prudence falls short 
of virtue, and how easily prudence degenerates into an 
unamiable selfishness. Nevertheless, on the great scale, 
looking to the moral state of whole nations, I am inclined 
to judge no one habit (after temperance) to be so con- 
ducive to all virtue as the prudential habit of securing a 
surplus, after expenditure on all things necessary. This 
is commonly called * living beneath one's income.' In- 
deed, without it how can we be generous ? Generosity 
is impossible to him who has no surplus. Let him try to 
be generous, and it will be at the expense of other people 
— of his kinsmen, or neighbours, or of the parish. Parents 
allow their children pocket-money, not only to teach them 
how to spend wisely, but also to afford them the luxury 
of giving away. What virtue more softens and elevates a 
poor working man or woman than generosity out of slender 



lo ESS A YS ON DIET, 

means ? With a little experience that out of honest toil 
they can not only supply their own wants, but also be 
generous, the temptation to dishonesty becomes blessedly 
feeble. Let us not forget that everywhere it is a received 
policy to give large salaries to all public officers who 
might be tempted to peculation, and to judges, who 
might else accept bribes, and that in India the English 
civil servants were corrupt while their official pay was 
low, and were raised above suspicion by liberal salaries. 
We must never overlook, in an argument concerning 
masses of men, that incipient virtue is a force whose 
limits are soon reached. That it may grow up into 
strength, it must not be tempted while it is weak and 
immature. 

To abstain from flesh-meat may be in itself more or 
less beneficial ; the amount of benefit may be variously 
estimated ; yet it is not that which I now press. But if 
by such abstinence a mass of people find themselves 
practically richer, without impairing health and strength 
or the healthful relish of food, the total result on public 
morality may be very great. Those who are enriched by 
fortune, or, by successfully threatening to strike, are apt 
to be made extravagant by it; but those who become 
richer by frugality have no burning to spend. They 
either save prudently or give generously, and in both 
ways gain some elevation : certainly they are lifted above 
the worst temptations to dishonesty. While the majority 
of our people lives on the edge of starvation, consuming 
its means as fast as they are produced, liable to sudden 
destitution by the failure of an employer, by the severity 
of a winter, or by some foreign event, I do not expect 
any great moral improvement. 

As for our artizans, I believe that they have only 
themselves to blame if they continue in this deplorable 



ESSAYS ON DIET. n 



State. The experience of teetotalers proves that, by mere 
abstinence from such drink as is certainly needless and 
probably hurtful, they may make a most important be- 
ginning of independence. But it delighted me to learn, 
over and above, peculiarly by the testimony of Mr. Henry 
Pitman, how much can practically be saved to every 
family by vegetarian food. I confess I had been pre- 
judiced by elaborate cookery-books of vegetarians into 
the belief that an accomplished cook was needful ; and I 
had heard that the late Mr. Brotherton's cookery was of 
a very troublesome and expensive kind, impossible to a 
humble family. In past years I was always repelled from 
the system by this erroneous notion. Certainly Vege- 
tarianism may have utihty for those who can afford it, 
even if it be attended with double trouble and double 
cost. But I beg all to consider that this system is not 
presentable to working men, unless it be cheap and easy ; 
that it is not likely to be accepted unless it be cheaper 
than, and as easy as, the food to which they are accus- 
tomed; and that, as the poorer classes are the ma- 
jority, its great excellence must be adaptation to their 
case. 

The first practical inference is, that our purpose is 
defeated by promoting any special run upon one sort of 
food, which cannot be supplied indefinitely. Thus, it 
being already difficult or impossible to get good milk in 
towns, we do harm if we urge an increased use of milk 
and cream. In Ireland much land, once cultivated, is 
now given back to grazing. This is evil, for it lessens the 
rustic population and drives them into towns, and the 
food for man produced from grazing land is said not to 
average one-third of that which the same land would 
yield in crops for man's direct consumption. But whether 
we demand more milk or more meat involves the very 



12 ESSA YS ON DIET. 

same results. We cannot have much more milk unless 
more calves are born. The cows, I believe, have long 
since been kept in a milch state as long as possible. 
More milk must mean more cows and calves, more 
grazing land, more dependence on foreign corn, more 
risk of starvation through war, even when we are 
neutral. 

Now, assuming that our food, be it what it may, gives 
the elements which nature needs, it surely is of high 
moral and even spiritual importance that it consume the 
minimum of effort, of anxiety, or of thought. Most 
lamentable is it when all the labour of man is for his 
mouth ; most desirable it is to satisfy our lower wants at 
the cheapest rate, and reserve as much as possible for 
higher wants. The artizans of England are well aware 
that knowledge is power ; they are alive to the importance 
of travel and the enjoyment of beautiful country. In no 
case is there any danger of their relapsing into contented 
idleness, if their bodily wants are easily supplied. Savages 
who are reared in peculiar habits will not betake them- 
selves to our industries ; but the last thing to be feared 
concerning Englishmen is, that they should stagnate in 
contented poverty if their lowest needs are easily satis- 
fied. Enormously greater is the danger, on which I must 
not here dilate, that zeal for female finery may intercept 
funds which ought to have been better applied. Nay, I 
do not wonder that in higher ranks a society should have 
arisen pledged to dress according as might be most con- 
venient, simple, and becoming to the individual, without 
regard to Fashion. For it is evident that, without the 
moral support which union gives, few have strength to 
resist that invisible tyrant. 

But, in truth, this belongs to a larger subject — that of 
luxury. The vulgar idea of happiness is indulgence in 



ESSAYS ON DIET, 13 

luxury, and out of this rises the haste to get rich, and 
ruinous mercantile frauds. Our society cannot pretend 
that accession to its practice is in itself any great advance 
to man or woman ; but to start aright is a vast advantage. 
To get into the right road from the first may save half of 
a traveller's toil. Paley well says, that *to have one's 
habits set rightly' is the best beginning for virtue and 
happiness* Historians report that a Greek ambassador, 
who visited the Roman consul Manius Curius with the 
purpose of bribing him, was smitten with despair when 
he found him dining on roast turnips. Simple habits in 
eating and drinking lead naturally to independence of 
mind and intellectual tastes. Such tastes carry men into 
a new sphere, remove them from many low vices, and 
make many virtues easier. 

May I take one step farther, and, without incurring 
the censure of Malthus, or rather, in defiance of Mal- 
thusian economists, utter my mind on a critical matter ? 
I confess that, when I know of no special reason against 
it, I always hear with pleasure of the marriage of a young 
couple. Young people who are industrious and self- 
denying, who have simple tastes and inexpensive habits, 
are everywhere able to maintain a family, unless the 
public institutions are gravely to blame ; for, even as a 
slave, a man is worth more than his keep. Every in- 
dustrious and intelligent labourer adds more to the wealth 
of society than he or she needs to take from it, and the 
. greatest wealth of every land is its people. I have learnt 
with joy how easy vegetarians find the feeding of a young 
family to be. When we return to the course of nature 
from which we have so widely deviated, when parents 
train their children to simplicity, and vegetarian food is 
but a type of that general hardihood for which many of 
our young nobility rush into foreign wildernesses, will 



14 ESSAYS ON DIET, 

not marriages become more general and earlier among 
our gentry and our townsfolk? and shall we not have 
new aids in struggling against social vices, upon which 
we all fear to dwell ? 

Considering how formidable are the vices of which 
luxury is parent, one might have hoped to meet with 
more practical protest against it from Christian Churches. 
Indeed, in the form of asceticism the protest does meet 
us both in the Roman Church and elsewhere ; but this is 
not the thing needed. I do not admit — I do not see 
how any of us can admit — that to live on vegetarian food 
involves self-denial, or mortifies the flesh. To weaken 
the body is precisely what we deprecate, and we deny 
that a judicious vegetarian diet has this tendency. As 
to self-denial, that of course is possible in every case. A 
flesh-eater may annoy himself by tough, unsavoury meat, 
with grease neither hot nor cold ; a vegetarian must find 
a peach to be nicer than a sloe, and custard than butter- 
milk. But assuredly the true enjoyment of food depends 
on hunger, or rather on healthy appetite, which one who 
eats for pleasure is apt to impair. Whether vegetarians 
are ever guilty of excess in quantity, and eat to surfeit, I 
am not informed ; but I think we can claim for our prac- 
tice that it saves us from the temptation. I find the 
food in general so to fill my stomach that it becomes 
painful to eat more the moment I have enough, and, as 
far as I remember to have read concerning savages and 
rude nations, it is always when a sheep or ox, or some 
large game is killed, that they have a carousal, and 
stupefy themselves by over-eating. But that we may 
pamper our tastes inordinately, and become cloyed by 
excess, is of course plain. 

Now, if anyone ask, * Why are delicious fruits, and 
leaves or roots with fine flavour, so adapted to our palates ? 



ESSAYS ON DIET. 15 

Are pineapples not to be eaten ? And who should eat 
them but those who can afford it ? ' — the questions highly 
deserve attention. 

I know a generous man — not a vegetarian — who has 
a pinery and a good grapehouse ; and if he or his wife 
hear of sick persons, delicate in appetite, they dehght 
more to send them the fruit than put it on their own 
table. This gives me the clue to the general reply. We 
are not all in robust health ; we have not always keen 
appetites. For the actually sick we must study to get food 
as delicate and palatable as possible. For them em- 
phatically are made the most luscious grapes and the 
inestimable orange. To all of us every fine flavour comes 
most acceptably when nature is least vigorous. But the 
stout stomach of those who are happily able to preserve 
habits wholly natural, enjoys with little distinction every 
healthful meal ; and while it on no account despises, nor 
fails to discriminate, things more dainty, yet it may proudly 
adopt St. Paul's noble words : * I know how to be abased 
and I know how to abound.' And this is the more 
enviable state, to be able to take all things as they come. 
One pleasant lesson I have learnt by my experience of 
vegetarianism — that, in matter of eating, the poor in 
general need not envy the rich : — I mean, when poverty 
is not such as to withhold things healthful, but is solely 
such as to impose coarser food. I believe that in the 
long run the stomach thrives better on what is commoner 
and coarser, and appetite more than makes up for what is 
deficient in delicacy to the palate. 

I perceive by the* Dietetic Reformer' and other books 
that vegetarians press greatly the cruelty occasioned by 
the diet of flesh-meat. My first impression was, that they 
overlook the ultimate inevitable necessity of our killing 
gentle birds and beasts in order to protect our crops. 



i6 ESSAYS ON DIET. 



May I venture the answer to this, which has presented 
itself to me on more continuous thought ? 

An active-minded physician, a man of muchoriginaHty, 
great research, and no small ability — one, moreover, who 
is no vegetarian— Dr. Henry McCormac, of Belfast, has 
investigated personally the cruelties of vivisection. He 
speaks of them with horror. He tells things frightful to 
read, things which I dare not repeat, concerning the 
behaviour of the affectionate animals which are delibe- 
rately put to exquisite torture. After seeing, deploring, 
and denouncing such cruelties. Dr. McCormac visited 
many slaughter-houses in which animals are killed for 
food, and now deliberately avows, that the cruelties of 
butchers equal the cruelties of vivisection, with this dif- 
ference, that those of the butcher are constant, almost 
daily, and those of the vivisector are in comparison seldom 
and few. To this we have now, alas ! to add the terrible 
sufferings endured by cattle in transit to the butcher 
through long journeys, from Scotland to the South of 
England, or from Germany to London ; suffering from 
thirst, hunger, fatigue, terror, and foul air : all which 
things produce disease in the animal, and threaten pesti- 
lence to man. 

At a late meeting in London of the Society against 
Cruelty to Animals certain noble lords spoke excellent 
speeches, deprecating the bearing rein, and other cruelties 
to our horses and dogs. But it occurred to me to wonder 
whether they had ever heard of the immeasurably worse 
things which Dr. McCormac denounces. Certainly it 
cannot be called a morbid sensibility or an amiable weak- 
ness, if any of us resolve to give no practical countenance 
to butchery, believing that it cannot be freed from such 
cruelties, or at least until it is so freed. But much still 
remains behind. Mr, William Howitt has from time to 



ESSAYS ON DIET, 17 

time made vigorous protest against the cruelty of the 
steel-toothed traps in which gamekeepers catch not only 
foxes and stoats, but also rabbits, hares, and other 
animals, for whom the traps are not set. This cruelty 
also seems unknown to the Society which I mention for 
honour. Yet what is that to us now ? Just so much. 
The cruelty of the steel trap is only a means of saving 
winged game from stoats, weasels, and foxes, while the 
game are preserved only to be slaughtered. Thus one 
practice draws another after it. 

Now if it be asked, * Shall we not after all be obliged 
to kill the game in self-defence, even if we do not eat it ? ' 
we may reply : i. We shall not kill them by steel traps, 
nor by vivisection ; 2. Their numbers can generally be 
kept down by taking their eggs ; 3. There is yet a simpler 
way ; namely, not to be so active in extirpating every 
carnivorous animal. 

No weasel, no hawk, blunders and boggles in his work 
like a butcher's boy. Dr. Livingstone attests that when 
he was seized by a lion, who caught him by the shoulder 
and shook him aloft in the air, his brain swam in a 
pleasant delirium such that he felt no pain. The lion 
was driven off ; Dr. Livingstone was saved, and endured 
grievous suffering while the mangled limb was healing ; 
but if the beast had not been interfered with, the doctor 
would have died without pain. In this I find much in- 
struction. The carnivora have still some place in creation. 
Though we cannot endure near our dwellings the more 
powerful species, it is easy to run into excess in the 
extirpation of the weaker. Remit excessive persecution 
of the hawk and owl, the stoat and fox ; and, though we 
were all vegetarians, we need not suffer from any excess 
of frugivorous birds. Their numbers will be checked 
without misery from our sportsmen, who often cripple 

C 



l8 ESSAYS ON DIET. 



instead of killing ; and much more without the far worse 
cruelties of our steel traps. In short, if we return towards 
reason and nature, we may have a just faith that the 
difficulties which we now apprehend will disperse of them- 
selves. This also is the answer which I make to myself 
concerning the supply of leather. 

But, at present, we are truly far off from nature and 
reason, as to our practices and principles, custom and 
law. Pheasant preserves have already shocked many, 
considering that the beautiful birds are preserved with so 
great labour, expense, and cruelty, only to be slaughtered 
in mass. Deer forests, which empty whole countries of 
men, in order that the noble game may be shot down by 
deerstalkers, are an enormity which must, at an early 
period, draw the notice of a reformed Parliament. Does 
it not appear that there is something fundamentally wrong 
in laws of land, which make such expulsion of human 
inhabitants and prohibition of tillage possible ? 

Many other things have to be reconsidered, in law 
and in morality. I cannot but think that the time is not 
very distant when England will largely change her landed 
system ; when men will be able to plant new orchards 
without making a simple present of them to a landlord ; 
when great landowners will think apple trees, pear trees, 
cherry trees, greengages, damsons, not to say chestnuts 
and mulberries, quite as handsome in their parks and 
wildernesses as trees that bear no fruit ; when every 
peasant's garden will have some fruit bushes, or apple 
tree, or greengage ; and English boys will learn not to 
plunder their neighbour's trees. Meanwhile, though by 
our own immoralities our native fruit is scanty, we may 
rejoice that a wiser legislation gives us cheap sugar and 
abundance of foreign dry fruit. Nay, there are few 
months in the year in which we may not reply to the 



ESSAYS ON DIET. 19 



* thirsty soul/ who pathetically asks how he is to replace 
his beer or brandy, if his beloved tippling shops be 
lessened in number, that his pocket will easily contain 
some cheap juicy fruit, foreign or native, adequate to 
reheve his distress. 

If anyone is of opinion that flesh-meat and vegetarian 
food are alike able to sustain hfe and strength, — that 
those who can easily afibrd both may well use both ; but 
that, nevertheless, it is a great unwisdom in the poorer 
to struggle for flesh-meat ; that they ought in this contest 
to yield to the richer, and save their small resources for 
better uses : — let him permit me to add a few thoughts 
which may tend to carry him one step farther. So long 
as the richer classes regard flesh-meat as something indis- 
pensable to themselves, no arguments will avail to hinder 
the mass of the poorer from coveting it, and, the moment 
they become richer, applying their new funds to the more 
expensive food. Now, historically, no nation has become 
at all populous, in comparison to its acreage, until the 
mass acquiesces in a food practically vegetarian, con- 
suming barely milk, butter, cheese, and milk in extremely 
small quantity. Such has been the state of the rustic 
population in every known nation of the world, after it 
became settled, civilized, and great. 

To reverse the process, and convert a densely-peopled 
nation into flesh-eaters, is economically impossible : but 
the move in that direction is vehement and specious. It 
will be arrested by public disease and calamity, if con- 
tinued long. Now among the poorer, as among the 
richer, there is but a small fraction of independent minds, 
who will follow argument and conviction rather than 
example and fashion. Hence any richer man who desires 
that the poorer may not be deluded into the chase after 
butcher's meat, ought himself to try to show by his 

c 2 



20 £SSA YS ON DIET. 

example that he regards that food as of no necessity. It 
is not essential always and totally to refuse to eat it ; a 
man may show his independence of it, his indifference to 
it, without entire abstinence. He may partake of it when 
he will inconvenience others by refusal, yet at other times 
decline it. And I think we ought to be glad of all such 
partial adhesion to our view as retards the noxious rush 
after flesh-meat. If a considerable fraction of richer men 
were greatly to lessen their consumption of it, and show 
practically that they count it indifferent, their example 
would have with the poorer a practical weight which no 
mere argument or prudential exhortation can have. 



ESSAYS ON DIET, 21 



III. 

WHAT SHALL WE EAT? WITH AN INQUIRY UPON 
IMPORTANT FACTS RELEVANT TO OUR CHOICE, 

* What shall we eat ? ' is really a question of first impor- 
tance ; but it is seldom so treated. In general, the rich 
eat what they like, and the poor what they can get ; 
neither the one nor the other studies what is best. 
Besides, there is a perverse influence at work of which 
few seem to be aware. Rich men are ashamed to give 
cheap food to their friends, even when the cheap is better. 
London sprats are, in the opinion of many, superior to 
Greenwich whitebait ; yet those who eat sprats in private, 
and prefer them, dare not offer them to their friends, 
because they are cheap. This does but illustrate a 
pervading principle. It is a baneful folly to think that 
what is rare, what is difficult, and what is out of season 
is best. And when the richer, who can well afford it, 
aim at expensive food because it is expensive, the 
poorer, who ill afford it, imitatie them, and get worse 
food at greater cost. I cannot treat the subject of food 
unless we consent, at least for a little while, to look at 
things with fresh eyes, and refuse to be blinded by 
fashion and routine. 

As the word Vegetarianism does not wholly explain 
itself, we may justly ask its meaning. Many suppose it 
to mean a diet consisting of table vegetables. It is true 
that these are an essential part of vegetarian diet, yet they 
are by no means the most important. Vegetarian food 



22 ESSA YS ON DIET. 

consists mainly of four heads — farinacea, pulse, fruit, and 
table vegetables. 

1. The ioxQTCio^t IS farinacea ] they are the * staff of 
life.' They are chiefly wheat,, barley, oats, maize, per- 
haps rye ; also potatoes, yams, rice and sago, tapioca, 
and such like. Vegetarians seldom endure baker's bread ; 
they become, fastidious about bread, as teetotalers 
about water ; and often prefer unleavened cakes, as 
Scotch scones, or biscuits not too hard ; else macaroni, 
also oatmeal porridge. The makers of aerated bread 
find that four per cent, of the material is wasted in fer- 
mentation. Besides, we have delicious Oswego or rice 
blaric-mange, or it may be hominy and frumenty. I 
guarantee to all that no one loses a taste for nice things 
by vegetarian food, however cheap. 

2. Under pulse we practically understand peas, beans, 
and lentils. They have excellent feeding qualities, but 
also a particular defect, which is chiefly remedied by 
onions adequately mixed. 

3. The word fruit speaks for itself. The dearer 
fruits are of least importance for food. Than apples 
no fruit is more universally serviceable. The cheaper 
figs, French, Italian, and Spanish, are less cloying and 
more feeding than the luscious Smyrna fig of the shops. 
Raisins and dates are now supplied in cheerful abun- 
dance. Not dates only, but foreign grapes are ever 
better and cheaper. To nuts we do great injustice. We 
put them on the table as dessert, to be eaten when the 
stomach is full, and then slander them as indigestible, 
because the stomach groans under excess of nutriment. 
We call them heavy, because they are nutritious. In 
Syria, walnuts and coarse dry figs make an admirable 
meal Filberts I count better than walnuts, and Brazil 
nuts better stilL Chestnuts, when roasted, are hard to 



ESSAYS ON DIET. 23 



cook uniformly well ; but I find them excellent in soup, 
or boiled ; and perhaps of all nuts accessible in England 
they are the most valuable. Cocoa-nuts, when we are 
wiser, will be better applied than to tempt a jaded appe- 
tite to hurtful indulgence. Almonds are too dear to be 
available as food ; yet concerning almonds, a physician 
who is no vegetarian gave me interesting information. 
* No man,* said he, ' need starve on a journey who can fill 
his waistcoat pocket with almonds. If you crush almonds 
thoroughly and duly mix them with water, no chemist in 
Europe can distinguish the substance from milk, and 
milk we regard as the most perfect food.' This suggests, 
moreover, that nuts, to become wholesome, must be 
thoroughly crushed and bitten. The delicious grape, 
noblest of fruits in our latitude, will yet become a general 
food. Oranges abound more and more, and continue to 
be a marvel. But no fruit must be eaten for amusement, 
and taken on a full stomach, or it will not be food 
at all. 

4. A few words on table vegetables. Potatoes and 
pulse I have noticed, and now pass them by. Mushrooms 
are most delicious, and abound with nitrogen ; a rare 
advantage : but we have them too seldom in the 
market. On the whole I regard those vegetables to be 
most important which supply flavour or correct defects 
in other food ; pre-eminently the tribe of onions, also 
celery, parsley, sage, savory, mint, with the foreign 
articles ginger and pepper. Onions and celery we do 
not cook enough ; indeed cabbage and cauliflower are 
eaten half raw by the English; on which account we 
do not know their value. Much the same may be said 
of what the farmer calls roots, i.e. turnips, carrots, parsnips, 
beet. Do not think that I despise any of these when I 
insist that this class of food stands only fourth. One who 



94 ESSAYS ON DIET. 



confines himself to these four .heads of diet is indis- 
putably a vegetarian. 

Yet, in fact, few vegetarians do confine themselves 
to this diet ; and herein consists my difficulty in defini- 
tion. We are open to the scoff of being, not vegetarians, 
but Brahmins, who do not object to animal food, but 
only to the taking of animal life. Few of us refuse eggs, 
or milk and its products. This is highly illogical, if we 
seek consistency with an abstract theory. I do not shut 
my eyes to it. The truth is, that in CDokery we need 
some grease, and it is hard to eat dry bread without 
butter or cheese. Our climate does not produce the 
nicer oils. It is not easy to buy oil delicate enough for 
food, and oil (to most Enghshmen) is offensive, from 
tasting like degenerate butter. Cheese, like nuts, is 
maligned as indigestible, barely because it is heaped on 
a full stomach. However, since most vegetarians admit 
eggs and milk, I define the diet as consisting of food 
which is substantially the growth of the earth without 
animal slaughter. If you prefer to call this Brahminism, I 
will not object. But my friend the late Professor Jarrett, of 
Cambridge, entitled our rule the V E M diet.^ I heartily 
applaud the convenient and truthful name. 

We shall all admit that the food which is natural 
to man is best for man ; but we are not agreed how to 
find out what is natural. I cannot wholly accede to 
students of comparative anatomy that the line of argu- 
ment which they adopt is decisive : yet it is well to know 
what it is, and how far it carries us. They assume that 
as in wild animals we see instinct unperverted, and as 
such instinct is a test of what is natural, we have to 
compare the structure of the human teeth and digestive 
apparatus with those of brutes, and thereby learn what 

I V= vegetables, £=eggs, M^milk. 



ESSAYS ON DIET. 25 



is natural to man. Since unluckily certain sharp teeth 
of ours are called ca?itne, superficial inquirers jump to 
the conclusion that our teeth were made to rend flesh, 
and on discovering that the alimentary canal of the sheep 
is much longer than that of the lion, longer also than 
that of man, they infer that we are not naturally herbi- 
vorous, but carnivorous. Vegetarians easily refute these 
arguments. They reply that our sharp teeth are ill- 
called canine^ for they do not lap over one another. 
Such teeth are larger and stronger in the ape than in 
man. I believe they are chiefly useful to crack nuts, of 
which monkeys are very fond. Be this as it may, no 
monkey naturally eats flesh, if even when tame some 
may be coaxed into eating it. And it is undeniable 
that the digestive apparatus of the monkey comes very 
near to that of man; hence vegetarians generally infer 
that flesh meat is unnatural to us. The same thing 
follows from the doctrine of the old naturalists, who 
thought the pig and the man to have marked similarities ; 
but wild swine certainly will not eat flesh, therefore man 
ought not. As to the length of the alimentary canal, 
there also vegetarians are easily triumphant. The length 
of it in the man, as in the monkey, is between two ex- 
tremes, the lion and the sheep ; therefore the human con- 
stitution for food is intermediate, Man is neither herbi- 
vorous, as the sheep and horse, nor carnivorous, as the 
lion, but is frugivorous, as the monkey. 

There is another argument of vegetarians which I 
must not omit, though I do not undertake to say how 
much it proves. They allege that carnivorous animals 
never sweat, but man certainly does sweat ; therefore he 
is not carnivorous. Here I feel myself uncertain as to 
fact. Carnivorous animals, made to prowl by night, have 
thick loose skins for defence against cold and wet, even 



26 ^^^^KS* ON DIET. 

in hot climates. In consequence, sweat would not easily 
relieve them from internal heat. How is it with the 
sheep? can they sweat? I do not know. 

But in truth this whole side of argument from the com- 
parison of animals seems to me but of secondary value. 
We cannot find by it what is natural to us, for, universally, 
we cannot find out all the possibilities of the higher 
being by studying the lower being. The assumption that 
we can is the main cause why external philosophy gravi- 
tates into materialism and atheism. The specific differ- 
ence of man and brute lies in the human mind; and 
this, at once and manifestly, has an essential bearing on 
the question of human food. No known animal lights a 
fire, or fosters a fire when lighted. However tender their 
affections, however warm their gratitude or their resent- 
ment, however wonderful their self-devotion, however 
they deserve our fond protection and our reciprocal 
gratitude, there is not one that understands the relation 
of fuel to fire : therefore there is not one that can cook. 
On this account the old logicians called man the * cooking 
animal ' ; and though, happily, this description does not 
exhaust the capacity of our nature, it affords (on the 
lower side of Nature) a sufficient criterion, distinguishing 
us from ail known brutes. 

Without our power of cookery, we could not make half 
the use we do of Vegetarian food. What would a potato 
be to us uncooked ? Of how little avail would onions 
and cauliflower, turnips and beans, or even corn itself, 
be without fire? We can no more conceive of man 
without power of cooking than of man without power 
of sowing, reaping, and grinding. It may fairly be 
maintained by the advocate of flesh-eating that if it 
pleased the Creator to develop the gorilla's brain, and 
give him a little more good sense, without altering his 



ESSA YS ON DIET. 27 



digestive organs or his teeth, the creature would begin 
by roasting chestnuts and broiling mushrooms, and go on 
to discover that roast flesh has many of the qualities of 
those princely fungi in whose praises enthusiastic votaries 
rave to us. Now if I have to admit that a gorilla might 
perhaps become a flesh-eater, if he had only the wit to 
cook, you may think that I abandon the cause of Vege- 
tarianism. Nay, but my cause is so strong that I can 
afford not to overstrain a single argument. 

If man had not the power of cooking, and had a 
natural incapacity for eating raw flesh, his command of 
food would be so limited, that he could not have over- 
spread the earth as he has. He certainly never could 
have found food in arctic regions ; scarcely would he 
have found it adequate for his sustenance in the tem- 
perate zone when he alighted on a country covered with 
forest and swamp. The operations of agriculture require 
long time and much co-operation before a wild land can 
be tamed ; and meanwhile, on what is the first cultivator 
to live ? We know what has been the course of history 
in nearly all countries. Only in a few, as China, India, 
Assyria, Egypt, the banks of the great navigable rivers, 
with alluvial or inundated land, gave such facility to the 
sower, that there is not even tradition of the time when 
tillage began. 

But in general, wild men in a wild country ate 
whatever they could get — or get most easily. In the 
woods wild game abounded— everywhere something, 
though varying from continent to continent Besides 
birds innumerable, endless tribes of antelope and deer in 
one place, of kine in another — whether the cow, or the 
buffalo, or the bison — of sheep in a third allured the 
hunter ; and cookery made the flesh of all eatable. We 
certainly can eat uncooked oysters. It is dangerous to 



28 ESSAYS ON DIET. 

deny that savage stomachs, when half-starved, can live on 
raw flesh and raw fish. But whether it be cause or effect, 
the tribes which have come nearest to this state have been 
either very degenerate or very primitive specimens of 
humanity. If very primitive, they do but display unde- 
veloped man, and they are the smallest fraction of the 
human race. 

The second stage in human civilisation is to rear 
tame cattle, if there are wild animals capable of being 
tamed. In the old world the sheep, the cow, the 
reindeer, or the buffalo became domesticated time out 
of mind ; also the camel ; and in South America the 
llama ; but the bison of North America, it seems, is un- 
tamable, so that the pastoral state did not there develop 
itself 

The transition from pasture to agriculture is a serious 
difficulty. To defend crops is most arduous ; in' fact is 
impossible to the private cultivator, unless he is armed 
with formidable weapons of war which the savage cannot 
get. Agriculture must ordinarily be, in the first instance, 
the act of the tribe collectively, and the crops their common 
property protected by their joint force. Until there is a 
powerful public executive, armed to defend private pro- 
perty, agriculture is too dangerous for an individual. On 
this account certain tribes have abhorred cultivation and 
fixed dwellings, as exposing the industrious man to slavery 
under marauders. Thus the Nabatheans of old, thus 
Jonadab the son of Rechab, forbade their children to 
build houses, or sow seed, or plant vines, because it inter- 
fered with wild liberty. Tribes who live by hunting 
only, need a vast space of land in which their game may 
live quietly ; from a small area it would quickly be fright- 
ened away ; hence such tribes have always been a very 
sparse population, and insignificant in the world's history. 



ESSAYS ON DIET. 29 



Those who live by pasturage, driving their flocks and 
herds from place to place, and building no houses, have 
generally been marauders ; indeed the Tartars and Scy- 
thians, who used the waggon as there home, in all earlier 
ages, were the great military nations, the conquerors of 
the more civilized. Though they mighty begin by living 
on the flesh and milk of their cattle, they soon learned to 
obtain grain, either by cultivating it themselves (for they 
were strong enough to protect it), or by purchasing it 
from neighbours by giving cattle in exchange, or by ex- 
torting it as a tribute from peaceful, but weaker cultivators. 
And in proportion as they lived on grain they were capable 
of becoming more populous ; thus population became 
denser, step by step, as flesh-meat was superseded by 
wheat and barley, by maize and rice. 

In the far north, where Finns and Lapps dwell almost 
side by side, the Lapps feed as of old on the products 
of the sea, or on the milk and flesh of the reindeer ; but 
the Finns have introduced corn culture, and live upon 
grain. The Finng are the stronger, larger, and handsomer 
men. At any rate their diet has agreed with them, even in 
that latitude ; but I do not mean to say that men may not 
retain perfect health and strength on either food, so far 
as health can be tested by the surgeon. The ancient 
Germans practised but little agriculture, says Caesar. By 
intercourse with Rome, especially on the Roman frontier, 
they became cultivators. In our own island, as we well 
know, agriculture existed before Saxon times ; but at the 
Norman conquest and long after, the land devoted to 
cattle or left in a state of Nature vastly predominated. 
In those days the poorest ate much more flesh-meat than 
now. There has been a continual diminution of flesh- 
meat and far higher supplies of vegetarian food. This 
is neither from unjust institutions nor from unfair taxation ; 



30 ESSA YS ON DIET, 

it is a normal result of increased population. It is in- 
evitable on an island sensibly limited in size ; for to 
produce as much human food as one acre of cultivated 
land will yield, three or even four acres of grazing land 
are needed. 

That era had its own disadvantages. The cattle had 
then little winter food ; they were killed and salted 
down in the close of autumn. Much salt meat and 
salt fish were eaten, and fresh vegetables were few in 
species and scarce. Parsnips are said to have been long 
the only root, before there were turnips and carrots ; 
potatoes, we know, came in from America. Native fruit 
was very limited, and our climate was thought hardly 
capable of bearing more sorts ; foreign fruit was not in 
the market. Now what I want to point out is this : that 
the diet of flesh-meat belongs to the time of barbarism — 
the time of low cultivation and thin population ; and that /'/ 
naturally^ normally decreases with higher cultivation. 

We see the same thing in ancient civilization and 
modern. The Brahmins in India, who stood at the head 
in intellect and in beauty, were wholly or prevalently vege- 
tarians. I believe, much the same was true of ancient 
Egypt Men of lower caste ate flesh, and the lowest most, 
and among these principally foul diseases of the skin 
prevailed ; no doubt, because where population is dense, 
the poorer classes, if they eat flesh-meat at all, are sure 
to get a sensible portion of their supply diseased and 
unwholesome. 

What is the true test of anything being natural to 
man ? He is a progressive being ; you must test it by 
his more mature, not by his immature era ; by his 
civilization, not by his barbarism. Flesh-meat helped 
him through his less developed state; it then existed 
around him in superfluity, while vegetarian food was 



ESSAYS OAT DIET, 31 

scarce ; moreover, the beasts slain for food were then 
generally in a natural and healthy condition. But to 
attempt to keep up in the latter and more developed 
stage the habits of the earlier and ruder is in many 
ways pernicious. At first each man kills his own game, 
or slaughters a beast of his own flock ; and long after 
that time is passed, the animals wander in the field 
or mountain or under the forest. The pig eats beech- 
nuts and oak-mast and horse-chestnuts. The steer 
browses on soft leaves and on grass. There is no stuffing 
with oilcake, no stall-feeding nor indoor life. The beast 
of the field abides in the field. When the herds abound, 
and the supply is easily adequate to the human popula- 
tion, the market is not likely to be tampered with. 
Neither roguery, nor artificial management of the animal 
is to be feared. Great Oriental communities put the 
slaughter of cattle for food under religious regulation. 

With the Jews, and, indeed, with the earliest Romans, 
the butcher was a priest ; and anxious distinctions were 
made of clean and unclean beasts, to exclude the eating 
of such flesh as either was supposed to be unwholesome 
or was forbidden for some economic reason. Now, in 
fact — owing, as I believe, to the great pressure for milk 
in a populous nation — the cow is of a peculiarly feeble 
constitution with us. This is manifest in her liability to 
suffer severely in calving, which is certainly a striking 
phenomenon. But surely it is only what might be ex- 
pected from the very artificial and unnatural demand 
that we make on her, to give us milk in quantity far 
beyond anything needed for her -calf and for a length of 
time so prolonged. So intimate is the relation of calving 
to milk-giving, that to overstrain one side of the female 
system must naturally derange the other. But to this is 
added stall-feeding and cramming, instead of the open 



32 ESSAYS ON DIET, 

field and natural herbage. Tholigh these practices may 
save money to the grazier and produce more pounds of 
meat and of unhealthy fat, they cannot conduce to the 
robustness of the animal, nor of the man who eats it. 

A worse thing is now revealed. I lately read that 
many farmers believe that they have found out the cause 
of what is called the foot-and-mouth disease — namely, 
they ascribe it to the fact that the animals are bred 
from parents too young. Now I lay no stress on their 
opinion. This may be erroneous. But they cannot be 
mistaken in what they state as a fact — namely, that in 
eagerness to supply the meat-market, and gain the 
utmost return to their capital, they artificially bring 
about a premature breeding of cattle. The moment 
it is mentioned, one sees what the temptation must be 
to a breeder ; one sees also, that the offspring is sure 
to be feeble, and therefore liable to any or every disease. 
It is well known that in Bengal, for religious reasons, the 
Brahmin girls are prevalently married at a very tender 
age, so that great numbers of mothers are hardly more 
than children themselves ; and to this is ascribed the 
peculiar delicacy and frequent small stature in such 
classes. I do not assume that such offspring need be 
unhealthy ; but unless protected as only men can be 
protected, if exposed as cattle must be exposed, one 
must expect them to catch any epidemic that may be 
abroad, and more and more to propagate feebleness. 

Municipal law struggles in vain against such tricks of 
the market. They go on for many years without the 
persons who practise them being aware of their harm. 
Prohibitions are hard to execute ; they are sure to come too 
late, and after they are enacted, some new artifice, equally 
bad, grows up. While the pressure for flesh-meat is great, 
unless the Government will take into its own hands 



ESSA YS ON DIET, 33 

both the slaughtering and the sales, it seems impossible 
to keep the trade under control. 

The United States have a vast abundance of soil, a 
very thin population ; hence they might, like our ances- 
tors, have flesh-meat and milk of a natural kind. But 
they have large towns, to be fed on a great scale by 
enterprizing capitalists ; so that many of the same evils 
grow up among them as with us. In New York a dis- 
tiller of spirits added to this trade the trade of cowkeep- 
ing, having learned that cows, fed upon the refuse grains 
of a distillery, give more milL This is true, but then 
the milk is inferior in quality, and the cows gradually 
become diseased — whether by the food, or by the un- 
wholesome confinement in the cellars beneath the 
distillery, I cannot say. But the complaints of the milk 
are bitter; moreover the cowkeepers in the country 
around have followed the evil example ; and it is posi- 
tively stated that the mortality of children in New York 
is enormous, which is a suspicious coincidence. These 
are but single instances and illustrations of the evils to 
which we are exposed from the tampering of the grazier 
with the animals in whose flesh or milk he deals. 

But I return to my point. With the progress of 
population Vegetarianism naturally increases. I do not 
say which is cause and which is effect ; they react on 
one another. When more food is wanted, and the price 
of corn rises, there is a motive to break up new land. 
Pasture is diminished. Perhaps by artificial grasses and 
by cultivation of roots the quantity of cattle is neverthe- 
less sustained ; yet if the process goes on, as in China 
(for an extreme case), the larger cattle will not at all 
increase in proportion to the population. Nor in- 
deed among ourselves has it increased proportionally, 
f he English roast beef that foreigners talk of is rarely 

P 



3^ ESSAYS ON DIET. 

indeed the diet of our villagers. Thirty years ago 
even our town artizans ate little fresh meat Bacon, 
principally fat, was nearly the sole animal food consumed 
by our peasants, whose state has but little altered. They 
may almost be called vegetarians ; for fat, like oil, supphes 
only animal heat, not the substance of muscle. Never- 
theless, it is now taught that on animal heat vital force 
depends, which muscle will not give. 

Now, lest we should pity our peasants too much, I 
must state that we have the decisive testimony of the 
most eminent scientific men to the sufficiency of a 
purely vegetarian diet, men not themselves vegetarians, 
nor intending to urge the practice. Our society has 
printed a handbill, with extracts from Haller, Liebig, 
Linnaeus, Gassendi, Professor Lawrence, Professor Owen, 
Baron Cuvier, and many others. Hear a few illustra- 
tions how those speak who mean to be our opponents. 
Dr. S. Brown writes : * We are ready to admit that 
vegetarian writers triumphantly prove that physical horse- 
like strength is not only compatible with, but also 
favoured by, a well-chosen diet from the vegetable 
kingdom, and likewise that such a table is conducive to 
length of days.' Dr. W. B. Carpenter writes : * We 
freely concede to the advocates of Vegetarianism, that as 
regards the endurance of physical labour there is ample 
proof of the capacity of [their diet] to afford the requisite 
sustenance.' He adds that if sufficiently oily, 'it will 
maintain the powers of the body at their highest natural 
elevation, even under exposure to extreme cold.' 

Thus the labourer, according to these high authorities, 
is not at all dependent on flesh-meat. And of this we 
have abundant proof in foreign nations. We have no 
stronger men among our flesh-dieted * navvies' than the 
African negroes of the United States, who were chiefly 

I 

I 



ESSAYS ON DIET, 35 

fed, while slaves, on yams, maize, and other vegetable 
food. We perhaps cannot anywhere produce a class of 
men to equal the porters of Constantinople. The London 
Spectator^ not long back (though it is anything but 
vegetarian in purpose) wondered at the ignorance of men 
who doubted whether vegetarian food was compatible 
with the greatest strength ; for, a Constantinople porter 
(said the writer) would not only easily carry the load of 
an English porter, but would carry off the man besides 
Mr. Winwood Reade, a surgeon who has travelled 
much in Africa, Mr. A. F. Kennedy, once Governor of 
Sierra Leone, and Captain P. Eardley Wilmot, attest that 
the Kroomen of Western Africa are eminent in endure 
ance. Mr. Kennedy says, * their power and endurance 
exceeds that of any race with which I am acquainted.' 
Mr. Winwood Reade expresses himself even more 
pointedly. *The Kroomen are, I believe, the strongest 
men in the world.' Yet the Krooman, he adds, lives on 
a few handfuls of rice per day ; and rice has not been 
supposed by our chemists to be at all favourable to 
human strength. They depreciated it, as giving too 
great a proportion of animal heat ; but they did not 
know that animal heat gives vital force also. 

It may be said that these cases belong to hot climates ; 
but indeed Constantinople can be anything but hot. And 
we can further appeal to northern Persia, where the winter 
is intensely cold. The English officers at Tabriz, the 
northern capital — who for a long series of years had the 
drilling of Persian troops — were enthusiastic in their 
praises, and testified that they make the longest marches 
on nothing but bread, cheese, and water, carrying three 
or four days' provision in their sash. These, however, 
are not strictly Persians, but of Turkoman race. I did 
not need to go to Persia for illustration, The Italians 

D 2 



36 ESSA YS ON^ DIET, 



of the north or anywhere on the Apennines would have 
served my argument. Bread, with figs or raisins, are 
their sufficient food ; and they were old Napoleon's 
hardiest soldiers round Moscow. Indeed, in every 
civilized country the strongest class of men are the 
peasants, who are everywhere all but vegetarians. Dr. 
Edward Smith, who reported to the Privy Council on the 
food of the three kingdoms, came to the conclusion that 
the Irish are the strongest, next to them the Scotch, next 
the northern English ; after them the southern peasants, 
lowest of all, the townsman observe : their Vegetarianism 
is graduated in the same way, the strongest being the 
most vegetarian, and the townsfolk who are weakest, 
being the greatest eaters of flesh. I do not mean to 
£ssert that diet is the only cause of strength or weak- 
ness ; it is sufficient to insist that Vegetarianism is 
compatible with the highest strength. The old Greek 
athlete was a vegetarian. Hercules, according to their 
comic poets, lived chiefly on pease pudding. 

But what of health ? The testimony of scientific men 
is here still more remarkable. Haller, the great physio- 
logist, writes : * This food, then, in which flesh has no 
part, is salutary, inasmuch as it fully nourishes a man, 
protracts life to an advanced period, and prevents or 
cures such disorders as are attributable to the acrimony 
or grossness of the blood.' That eminent physician. Dr. 
Cheyne, of Bath, declared : ^ For those who are extremely 
broken down with chronic disease I have found no other 
relief than a total abstinence from all animal food, and 
from all sorts of strong and fermented liquors. In about 
thirty years' practice, in which I have (in some degree or 
other) advised this method in proper cases, I have had 
but two cases in whose total recovery I have been mis- 
taken.' A remarkable instance is that of Professor 



ESSAYS ON DIET, 37 

Fergusson, the historian — who, at the age of sixty-one, 
had a dangerous attack of paralysis. He called in his 
friend Dr. Black, the celebrated discoverer of latent 
heat. Dr. Black, though not a vegetarian, prescribed 
total abstinence from flesh-meat. Professor Fergusson 
obeyed, and not only recovered entirely and never had a 
second attack, but was a remarkably vigorous old man at 
ninety, and died at ninety-three. 

In such cases I think we have an explanation of the 
success of some things called quack remedies — as ih^ grape 
cure of the Germans. I am ready to believe that it is not 
so much the grapes that cure as the abstinence from a gross 
and evil diet. Dr. A. P. Buchan teaches that a diet of 
farinacea, with milk and fruits, is the most hopeful way of 
curing pulmonary consumption ; many examples of such 
cure in an early stage of the disease, says he, are recorded. 
He adds : * If vegetables and milk were more used in 
diet, we should have less scurvy, and likewise fewer 
putrid and inflammatory fevers.' Drs. Craigie and Cullen 
are very strong as to the power of Vegetarianism to 
preserve one from gout. Dr. Marcet, Oliver, and other 
physiologists declare that human chyle, elaborated from 
flesh-meat, putrefies in three or four days at longest, while 
chyle from vegetable food, from its greater purity and 
more perfect vitality, may be kept for many days without 
becoming putrid. 

We need not, therefore, wonder that vegetarians 
are so little liable to fever, or to any form of putrid 
disease. It is asserted, indeed, that in England and 
America no vegetarian has been known to suffer from 
cholera. On the other hand, it is also asserted that 
none but vegetarians have attained the age of a hun- 
dred ; undoubtedly a viaiority of centenarians have held 
to this diet. 



38 ESS A YS ON DIET. 



Now I know some persons will answer quickly, * I do 
not want to live to a hundred/ But remember, I pray you, 
what such longevity implies. The man who lives to a 
hundred is generally as strong at eighty, and as perfect in 
all his faculties, as are the majority of men at sixty-five, 
and he is not so much worn out at ninety as the man 
who lives to eighty-two or eighty-three is at eighty. It 
is not the last seven years of the centenarian which give 
him advantage, but the twenty years which precede these 
seven. However, wish what we please about long life ; 
it remains, that long life, if it exist in a class of men, 
implies that that class excels in vital force, is superior 
therefore in health, probably in strength, and health is 
more valuable than strength. Once more, reflect what is 
contained in the avowal that pulmonary consumption is 
best treated, and is sometimes cured, by abstinence from 
flesh-meat and wine. Consumption is notoriously a 
disease of weakness. Hence we must infer that more 
strength is given by vegetarian diet than by that which is 
called stimulating. 

All the arguments converge to the same point. Vital 
force is measured by length of life, and by power of 
recovering from dangerous wounds. Vegetarianism 
conduces at once to length of life and to success 
in such recovery. I have mentioned that Dr. Cheyne 
and Dr. Black trusted in it as a recipe when the con- 
stitution was broken down ; how much more must it 
be a preservative of strength to the healthy ? Dr. S. 
Nicolls, of the Longford Fever Hospital, wrote in 1864, 
after sixteen years' experience in the hospital, that the 
success of treatment by a total withdrawal of flesh-meat 
and of alcoholic liquors gave him the greatest satisfaction. 
The long and short is, that whatever is inflammatory is 
weakening ; the highest vigour is got out of that food 



ESSAYS ON DIET, 39 

and drink which gives the maximum of nutrition and the 
minimum of inflammation. We allow ourselves to be 
cheated by calling inflammation stimulus. Further, I 
will ask : Of the English race, what portion is most 
unhealthy ? Beyond question, the English of the United 
States. And they are also the greatest flesh-eaters. 

Now let me add a word concerning the North Ameri- 
can Indian. It is long since a few of the tribes introduced 
the cultivation of maize, ascribed to Hiawatha in Long- 
fellow's poem. The Cherokees adopted an agricultural 
life while in Georgia ; but the distant and the roaming 
tribes continue to depend on hunting, and even their girls 
and boys must live chiefly on flesh. How solid is the 
national constitution is strikingly shown in the strength of 
the women, who, in the joumeyings of a tribe, if visited 
by child-birth, need but half-a-day's rest, and then start 
on the march, with the infant on the mother's back. 
The late well-known Mrs. Lydia Maria Child detailed how 
an Indian woman trudged to Mrs. Child's house through 
many miles of deep snow, and next day came the same 
journey carrying an infant which she had brought to 
light in the interval. The vigour and activity of the 
Indian continues unimpaired till within a short time 
(perhaps a fortnight) of natural death, when he is made 
aware of weakness and death approaching. 

Now some one might quote these facts as a testimony 
to the value of a flesh diet ; but against it there are 
two drawbacks. If disease arise in an Indian, it is apt 
to be exceedingly violent ; small-pox may carry off" a 
whole tribe. Further, no one attributes to them peculiarly 
long hfe. They are said to die worn out at eighty. I 
do not speak confidently, for it is hard to be sure of 
facts. Yet I believe they are less long-lived, and recover 
worse from disease than the vegetarian Africans dwelling 



40 ESS A YS OAT DIET. 

on the same land ; less long-lived also than the Arabs, 
who live more on milk and less on meat. On the whole, 
I think that life in the open air, a cautious choice of 
healthy places for encamping, and consequent purity of 
blood, gives to those men and women their great robust- 
ness. All food comes alike to such stomachs, as regards 
its power of nourishing ; but if the flesh-meat produces 
a more inflammable habit, it shortens natural life, as well 
as intensities disease. 

So far the attempt to develop facts. It remains to 
draw my conclusion. I first have to insist that ever since 
1847 we have been striving to reverse the natural current 
of affairs — an enterprize which will necessarily entail 
disease and a vast train of calamity. Within the first half 
of this century, the population of the three kingdoms more 
than doubled itself in spite of emigration. Great areas of 
land were broken up for cultivation, partly under the allure- 
ments of a high price for corn, partly to take advantage of 
the Tithe Commutation Act. But after the abolition of 
the Com Laws in 1847, the increased prosperity of the 
manufacturing towns led, not only to an importation of 
corn, but also to a remarkable demand of the artizan 
population for flesh-meat. Cattle were brought from 
abroad in great numbers. Prices still went up. A great 
stimulus was given to cattle-breeding. The markets of 
England were supplied from Scotland and Ireland as well 
as from foreign ports, until in Ireland land was thrown 
out of culture and taken up for grazing. The clamour 
for flesh continuing, we bring it from Australia and South 
America, artificially preserved. From importing instead 
of raising food, our worst evils are increased. Rustic 
industry is not developed. The new births of the country 
find no employment there, and flock into towns. Masses 
of population become liable to starvation from a dis- 



ESSAYS ON DIET. 41 

placement of foreign markets, or from the imprudence 
of their employers ; and where personal prudence has less 
reward, improvidence prevails. Town-life is less robust, 
sanitary conditions are harder to fulfil. A nation fed 
from foreign markets suifers convulsion from other 
people's wars. And when more and more the land is 
occupied by large estates, by parks, by wildernesses kept 
for sheep or deer, while huge towns prevail, we have the 
type of national decay. Our statesmen look on helplessly 
while a robust peasantry is supplanted by a feeble and 
unhealthy town population. Our sage sanitarians want 
to bring water to our cities from Welsh, Scotch, or 
Cumberland lakes, for fear we should remember that 
it is as possible for the country to be occupied and culti- 
vated by men as to be grazed by cattle. England will 
not long hold up her head in Europe, if she allow the 
system of empty country and ever-increasing towns to 
prevail. 

There are other causes of the evil, I am aware, 
besides this zeal for flesh-meat. We have to open our 
eyes to more things than one, and a hard battle perhaps 
has to be fought. But in regard to flesh-meat, each 
family has the remedy in its own hands. The waste of 
its resources is caused by an attempt to bring back the 
condition of things belonging to comparative barbarism, 
and make us a flesh- eating nation again, when the era of 
flesh-eating is naturally past. And what is the conse- 
quence ? Where the population is dense^ the poorer classes, 
if they eat flesh-meat at ally are sure to get a sensible portiott 
0/ their supply in an unwholesome state. 

What said Dr. Letheby, inspector of the London 
markets, to the Social Science Association ? * The use of 
unsound meat,' he said, * was more injurious than that of 
any other unsound food. In the three city markets there 



42 ESS A YS ON DIET, 

are 400 tons of meat received and sold daily. With a staff 
of but two inspectors it was hardly possible to make a 
sufficient and satisfactory supervision ; nevertheless they 
seized from one to two tons of diseased meat every 
week. The seizures in 1867 amounted to no less than 
288,000 lbs., or 129 tons.' But, he says, in the country at 
large the case is vastly worse. Taking all the markets, 
it had been calculated * that only one part in ^y try five was 
sound.* Now, even if this statement were exaggerated, 
yet how very bad the case must be to allow of its being 
made ! If instead of one-fifth of the meat being unwhole- 
some it were every day one-fiftieth^ the case would be awful 
enough. Remember, that where one ton is condemned, 
there is sure to be a margin of three tons which is 
suspected, but cannot be condemned, and importers or 
graziers, to save themselves from loss, are driven to 
disguise disease as well as they can. This suspected 
meat is sold at half-price, and by its cheapness attracts 
the poor. 

Hence disease is certain. Small-pox has surprized us 
by virulent outbursts; yet what reason is there for surprize ? 
Do not Pariahs in India, and a like class in Egypt, by eating 
flesh or fish in an unwholesome state, bring on leprosy and 
small-pox, and other foul contagious diseases ? How do 
our doctors suppose that the small-pox arose for the 
first time? They say it came from China, and that it cannot 
come to us unless we catch it from a human being. Was 
ever anything so imbecile ? The first patient did not catch 
it from an earlier patient, but brought it on himself by foul 
diet or some uncleanness ; and of course if any of us 
use the same foulness, he is liable to bring it on himself 
without any one to transmit it to him. Paris is the city 
that cooks up and disguises offal ; Paris can generate 
small-pox as well as China. Our doctors divert us from 



ESSAYS ON DIET. 43 

the true scent For fear that we should discover what is 
our uncleanness of living, they tell us that small-pox 
comes because we are not vaccinated. That also is not 
at all true. Indeed, none are oftener vaccinated than 
French soldiers, and no part of the French population 
suffers worse from small-pox than the soldiers. Bad diet 
and unclean herding together must be the cause. Diet ? 
why, if we are to believe our newspapers, they have eaten 
in Paris even the rats from the sewers, not from any 
real deficiency of wholesome food, but from an infatuated 
determination to get flesh-meat. And at the same time, 
the correspondent who praises the flavour of the rat tells 
us that small-pox has broken out again durinjg the siege ; 
and now, says he, in the week ending November 5 the 
deaths from small-pox were 380 ; in the week ending 
November 12 they were 419. 

Perhaps it is needless to say why animals brought to 
market must be diseased. It is not natural to an ox to get 
into a steamer, or into a railway car, nor to walk through 
the streets, nor to take its place quietly as in a pen at the 
market. A great deal of beating and terrifying is needed. 
His fatigue in a long journey — manage it as you will — is 
necessarily great ; he suffers also from thirst. The Cars and 
steamers cannot be cleanly. In short, it would be wonder- 
ful if forty-nine in fifty arrived in tolerable health. So long 
as there is a forced market, cattle brought from a distance 
will be like the miserable Africans carried in slave ships ; 
and all our cattle will be of feeble constitution, liable to 
diseases from shght cause, because bred artificially and 
reared artificially. The poorer classes suffer first and 
inevitably, in the squandering of? their resources ; 
secondly, by disease, and many more by infection from 
the sick. And those who evade disease do not get more 
strength, and do get a somewhat more inflammatory 



44 ESSAYS ON DIET. 

habit from the flesh-meat At the same time, by eating 
more expensive food, they cannot afford so healthy 
habitations. Such are the evils on the side of health and 
economy. 

But besides, the evils of inhumanity in the slaughter of 
larger cattle are very terrible. No one has yet found *a 
remedy for the clumsiness of butchers' boys. I cannot 
now dwell on this actually painful part of my subject ; I 
can only say it quite reconciles me to be called a Brahmin. 
At the same time, recurring to the inconsistency of milk 
and eggs with strict Vegetarianism, I will observe that, 
by the avowal of medical science, milk has none of the 
inflammatory properties of flesh-meat ; in so far it is akin 
to vegetarian food. But undoubtedly the pressure of 
dense population for milk is an evil, and tends to the 
adulteration of the milk, to a deterioration of it by giving 
to the cow whatever will increase its quantity, and to an 
enfeebling of cows generally, by asking too much milk of 
them, and by breeding them too quickly. Therefore I 
take pains to make no increased use of milk since I am a 
vegetarian, nor yet of eggs. We have not yet learned to 
get substitutes from oleaginous nuts. We are in a state 
of transition. A future age will look back on this as 
barbarism; yet we are moving towards the higher and 
nobler development in becoming even thus partial 
vegetarians. 

Finally, I must not omit one topic, the evils of over- 
feeding which flesh-eating induces. A vegetarian may 
eat too much, yet it is more difficult to him from the 
bulk of his food; nearly all over-feeding is practically 
caused by flesh, fish, and fowl. The late witty Sydney 
Smith, wishing to reprove this vice, jocosely said : * As 
accurately as I can calculate, between the ages of ten 
and seventy I have eaten forty-four waggon-loads of food 



ESSAYS ON DIET, 45 



more than was good for me/ .Every ounce that a man 
eats more than he needs positively weakens him, for his 
vegetable forces use up his energy in getting rid of the 
needless food. The gormandizing in great towns is de- 
spicable from one side, but from another is afflicting, 
when one thinks of the endless disease engendered in 
the classes who eat too much, while so many have too 
little. Yet to the poorer a far worse evil than the privation 
of flesh is, that they are incited to long for it when they 
see all who can afford it pay any price rather than go 
without it. Our working classes will not attain the eleva- 
tion which is possible to them until they put on the senti- 
ment of Brahmins, and look down upon flesh-eating as a 
lower state. 



ESSAYS ON DIET. 



When the nam 
casually before 
generally regan 
deny that whili 
I thought it a s 
cannot be surp 
then was, so re; 
scornful questi 
'What « the uf 
the true and 
whatever.' No 
of asking some 
thing as cattle 
meat in the m 
among foul eati 
meat becoming 
ruinously dear i 
are familiar to ; 
ever reflect on 
elieve 
that m 
irst att 
many 



£SSAyS ON DIET. 47 

The easiest question to answer is — What is the cause 
of the high price of butcher's meat ? The reply is — An 
enormous increase of demand. The whole series of 
events is within the easy memory of those who are no 
longer young, yet may need to be shortly recapitulated to 
the new generation. I will first remark, that any great 
murrain in cattle (however caused) would naturally be 
followed by an increased price of meat. I do not over- 
look this, when I refer to the increase of demand as the 
main and steady cause of the rise in price. In fact this 
was distinctly predicted, by far-seeing economists in 1846 
and previous years, during the contest for the abolition of 
the old Corn Laws. The late (Jeneral Perronet Thompson 
illustrated popularly his economic prediction, by saying : 
'When, through the cheapening of bread, a man finds he 
has an unexpected sixpence in his pocket, he is very apt 
to want a mutton-chop,' On this ground he foretold that 
the abolition of the Com Laws would make the artizans 
eat, not more bread, but more butcher's meat, and that 
the price of such meat would rise. Accordingly, he and 
Colonel Torrens prophesied that the farmers would 
become enriched by the sale of agricultural luxuries, in 
proportion as the one agricultural necessary (bread) became 
chpjinrr , f.^, ™-,^t ^an:™., =,.„o^ts^ that bread would 
act, it has only 
ts indefinite rise 
ork, rather than 
able to demand 
1 was a marked 
ireign cattle for 
increase thence- 
railway system 
by a fall in the 
:d rural districts, 



48 ESSAYS ON DIET, 

At length it became worth while to turn Irish arable land 
into grazing, for the production of more cattle. This 
must be the tendency everjrwhere, at a certain point of 
price, if butcher's meat go up, or bread go down ; for land 
is husbanded, not for the cultivator's mouth, but for his 
purse (or what here amounts to the same, for the land- 
lord's purse) ; hence, unless our present career be checked, 
we have a very dreary prospect before us. 

In approaching a second question. What are the 
causes of cattle murrain ? I may seem ambitious and 
imprudent in attempting an answer. Of course there 
are many possible causes of epidemic disease, few of them 
visible to us ; but if some circumstances, which we 
familiarly know to exist, must tend to cause such disease, 
and others to spread it, mere prudence commands us to 
avoid such a combination of facts, if we look on the 
disease as alarming. And first, all conveyance of cattle 
on a great scale to distant markets entails disease. We 
have left far behind us the habits of the Irish pig-driver, 
who so prized every pig of his herd, that he proportioned 
their marches to the strength of the weakest ; watched 
over their wants tenderly ; while he knew every yard of 
his ground, and devoted every thought to bring his 
property to market in prime condition. * The master's 
eye makes the horse fat,' is, I believe, an old saying. 
The pig-driver was the pig-master, and called every single 
pig his * honey.' The case is different, if men have to drive 
cattle not their own, and are bound to arrive at a certain 
moment The poor brutes, transferred from their pleasant 
pastures, know not whither they are going ; they have no 
relish for a chalky or stony or muddy highway, for the 
streets of a town, for entrance or exit of a steamboat. 
Many a wild scamper down a wrong street is taken, to 
the anger of the driver. Much beating, much terrifying, 



ESS A YS ON DIET. 49 



much fatigue is caused to some. Time is lost, and all 
must be hurried. In the streets of London, and still 
worse, in old Smithfield market, we used to see cattle 
beaten about the head by impatient drivers, perhaps igno- 
rant lads ; but the thing is inevitable, when a whole army 
of them is to be marshalled in a short time. One may 
see on Scotch steamers how roughly sheep must be 
treated to hand them up and down steep inclines. If 
animals travel on their feet, they have, besides the fatigue 
of walking, many such untoward events as I have denoted. 
On board of steamers, or in railway cars, they are crammed 
together, often most painfully, some of them in fatiguing 
postures. Many of them on the railway are tied by the 
horns, and often struggle against their bonds. In the 
great murrain year, I was told by a grazier who was ac- 
companying cattle on a rail, that the cars vacated by one 
set were occupied by another without cleansing, and he, 
for one, did not know how the cattle escaped disease so 
well. 

It is all but universal with English reasoners (whether 
peculiar to us as a nation, I do not know), to disbelieve 
the possibility that contagious disease is engendered by 
ourselves. The guilt of it is always laid on the foreigner. 
Unlucky foreigners, how do they get it ? Is it a heaven- 
sent curse, uncaused by themselves? If it spring from 
their neglects and bad habits, and we indulge the same 
neglects and the same bad habits, will not they entail on us 
the same murrains of every class ? I have seen the rail- 
way cattle-cars, and shuddered at them, while our legis- 
lators see no danger but from imported cattle. No doubt 
imported cattle must often be in cruel plight. The jolting 
which they endure in a luggage train is bad enough. 
But think what is meant by a storm at sea, with cattle 
on board It is hard to know whether they are worse 

£ 



50 ESSA YS ON DIET. 

on deck or in the hold, tossed about, banged against one 
another. Sometimes, the partitions giving way, awful 
chaos results ; but in every case the terror of the poor 
animals in so new and unintelligible a position is liable to 
be extreme. To give them food or water, or keep the 
place clean, is impossible ; and in the slighter cases of 
bad weather, if to tie them down be bad, to leave them 
untied is worse. 

When an artizan, on finding an unexpected shilling in 
his pocket, resolves on an additional mutton-chop or beef- 
steak — permit me to exercise an Oriental fancy, and 
suppose him to be addressed by the Genius of the cattle, 
who might speak as follows : — * You desire butcher's 
meat, not understanding how alone it is to be had Your 
England is no longer the England of Henry the Eighth, 
containing five million persons. You have five times 
that number, and the native cattle no longer suffice for 
you. But you have every species of corn in vast abun- 
dance ; you have native crops of potatoes and pulse, of 
fruits and of vegetables far beyond anything here known 
in past ages ; and from richer climes you have ample 
supplies of rice, of sago, of maize and its products, of 
arrowroot, and numerous kinds of dry fruit, on any or all 
of which you can feed and banquet more cheaply than on 
butcher's meat, and be as robust as your father and grand- 
father were. Yet, it seems, nothing will please you but 
beef and mutton. Understand then at what price you 
are to gratify this arbitrary taste. First, you use up your 
slender means, so that you are not a bit the better for 
higher wages. Money which might have given you 
healthier apartments, and saved yourself and family from 
illness ; or if you are already well lodged, might have 
conduced to save your wife from drudgery, or give re- 
finement and cultivation to your children, this you spend 



ESSAYS ON DIET. 51 

day by day on the selfish gratification of appetite. 
Next, your flesh-meat will be imported at the expense of 
great suffering to remote herds of cattle. I warn you, 
that many of these innocent sufferers will fall into a 
fevered state, will become victims of disease, will spread 
disease to others, will some of them be eaten perhaps by 
you, will at any rate revenge themselves on the poorer 
flesh-eaters, if even the richer, who can pay indefinitely 
high prices, escape.' 

I am trying to show you how Vegetarianism is related 
to the cattle murrain. In short, it stands thus : In 
lessening their Vegetarianism, the mass of the English 
workmen have powerfully tended to create disease in 
cattle, by hoisting up the prices of meat, and thereby 
causing a demand of the English market on remote 
pastures. Yet this is only one side of the question. 
Strong health resists disease, escapes often even in spite 
of bad habits, much more resists infection from without. 
But weak constitutions fall easily. In a weakly herd any 
epidemic is likely to spread with tenfold rapidity ; who 
will doubt it ? Further, our great increase of demand for 
meat has tended to make our cattle of weaker constitution. 
This is not my discovery ; but when I read it in the letter 
of a cattle-breeder, I at once saw that what he states as 
fact is inevitable. The high price of meat, contingent on 
the increased demand, sets the graziers to breed the cattle 
as fast as they can ; and in consequence great numbers 
are hoxnfrom immature parents. The animals thus born 
are not necessarily unhealthy ; but they are delicate, not 
robust ; and if exposed, as cattle must be exposed, they 
are far more liable to catch any or every disease that may 
be abroad, than those unforced. Indeed, the whole 
system of stall-feeding, and confinement, and cramming, 
being essentially artificial, tends further to weaken the 

£ 2 



52 BSSAVS ON DIET. 



whole species, weakened probably already by our exces- 
sive demand for milk. 

Do we now understand what is the use of Vegetarian- 
ism ? One reply is, it is useful to arrest a scourge which 
has punished us increasingly since 1848, and is likely to 
punish us more — contagious disease in cattle and in men. 
But I have not sufficiently insisted on the continuity of 
the evil In certain years we have special alarm about 
cattle murrain or small-pox. It must not be supposed 
that in other years we are free. I will not here insist on 
the frightful statements made by curious inquirers con- 
cerning the parasitical worms infesting pork, and in spite 
of cookery (it is said) propagating themselves in pork- 
eaters. To speak frankly, I think there must be exaggera- 
tion here, else we should be in a far more wretched plight 
than we are. Nevertheless, that much unhealthy pork is 
eaten by the poor cannot be doubted ; and it was from 
the extreme danger of this, that ancient Oriental legislators 
were severe against pork-flesh. It is not the wild swine 
which are feared. The modern Arabs have no horror of 
the flesh of the wild boar. It is the artificially nurtured 
pig, which is feared ; the pig fed upon ofial, or picking 
up around the habitations of men whatever he can. So 
the swine which feed in the forests of thinly-peopled 
countries may be as sound as the wholly wild animal. 

We are no longer in that position. In all our great cities 
it is necessary to take precautions for excluding diseased 
meat from the markets, not in specially dangerous years, 
but every year, every week. The competition of trade 
forces every tradesman to count on a moderate percent- 
age ; he might as well not enter the trade at all, as not 
get his requisite profit. Competition beats down the 
estimate, so that he has no great margin for loss ; hence 
it must be with the utmost reluctance that he consents to 



ESSA YS ON DIET. 53 

regard an animal as unsound and unsaleable. What are 
the agreements between the real proprietors and the 
agents or drovers, does not signify ; for it is clear that 
the subordinates must try to reduce the proprietors* loss 
and their own responsibility to the lowest point. As a 
fact, the pressure of bad meat into the market has to be 
resisted by the most stringent efforts, and punished 
severely. Thousands of tons are condemned, and all 
know that vast quantities which cannot be condemned 
are suspicious. Much meat is sold at a greatly reduced 
price, certainly because the salesmen are peculiarly eager 
to get rid of it. Who after this can wonder that small- 
pox has increased upon us within the last twenty years ? 
Who can doubt that the mass of our town population 
habitually eats a portion of its flesh-supply in an un- 
wholesome state? No increased stringency of super- 
vision can much abate the evil, while a people is striving 
to eat more sound meat than has come to market ; it is 
striving virtually for the impossible. The only cure lies 
in lessening the demand ; in persuading the masses of 
workmen that their competition for flesh-meat is a folly, 
impoverishing and perhaps infecting them. 

It may be replied that the working classes aire wilful 
and besotted, and of course grasp at every luxury in their 
power. See, it will be said, how recklessly they spend 
their money on beer or gin, or if not on drink, then on 
tobacco- smoking, or perhaps on both. There are many 
exceptions. Nevertheless, I concede, they are a minority. 
I admit and press, that so long as all who are rich enough 
to get an article insist on getting it, the poorer will covet 
it, will count it a luxury, and will often ruin their finance 
by eagerness for it. But this is precisely the reason why 
the richer should set them a different example. * I will 
eat no meat while the world standeth,' said the great 



54 ESS A YS ON DIET, 

Apostle, *if it make my brother to offend* If there is 
not enough sound flesh-meat for all, and it be not neces- 
sary for our welfare, why should we, who are richer, rush 
in to clutch at it ? 

But I turn to another side of the subject, hardly less 
important. Just alarm is widely spread concerning a fact 
too broad to be denied — the growth of our towns, and 
the disproportionate emptiness of our country. This is 
everywhere the symptom of progressive national decay. 
The Roman poet Horace saw it already before his eyes 
in Italy. Small freeholds had become rare. On the 
great estates were beautiful villas, splendid parks culti- 
vated for elegance, not for service. The fruit tree was 
* evicted ' (to use his phrase) by the barren tree. The 
towns were full and the country empty. Grazing super- 
seded agriculture ; cattle took the place of robust free- 
men, and were tended by a sparse population of slaves. 
A Gaulish chieftain, soon after, in urging his countrymen 
to revolt against Rome, used the argument, * Italy is poor 
in men,' and Pliny echoed it in the utterance, ' Broad 
estates have ruined Italy.' In modern Turkey we have 
the same deplorable phenomenon, from widely different 
causes — well filled towns and empty country. The 
historian Sismondi attests that it characterized every 
land, which was in its turn ruined by the Roman empire. 
No impartial and well-informed person can look on Great 
Britain without discerning the same alarming phenomenon 
in contrasting our rural districts with our towns. The 
• country places do not support their own births; the 
rustic population flock to the towns. 

Now I am not about to say that this is directly caused 
by flesh-eating ; it undoubtedly depends on circumstances 
of landed tenure, which cannot here be treated. Never- 
theless, the evils are aggravated by the demand of the 



ESSAYS ON DIET. 5S 



wealthy towns for cattle and their products; this fact 
alone makes it worth a landlord's while to keep arable 
land in pasture. If the towns renounced flesh-eating we 
should see in a single generation, even without improved 
land tenure, a tide of migration set the other way — from 
towns into the country. Rustic industry would be im- 
mensely developed. All motive for expatriation of our 
robustest youth would, for a long time yet, be removed, 
and the country might be enormously enriched, not in 
an upper stratum of great fortunes, but (if national 
morality kept pace with wealth) dowo to the bottom of 
the community. Our strength is proportioned to the 
number of our industrious and loyal citizens. The 
country would then bear a great increase of population 
without effort ; for it is certain that ordinary arable land 
will produce easily four times as much human food as 
the same land devoted to grazing. Of course there is 
land where the soil barely covers the rock — where a 
plough cannot be driven, or where mere steepness 
forbids — on which, nevertheless, grass can grow. No 
one wishes to get rid of all grazing land. But where the 
soil has moderate depth cultivation improves it, if there 
be but enough labourers. The area for which twenty 
men suffice to tend oxen grazing on it might need the 
labour of a thousand (including rustic artizans) if it were 
duly laid out for crops. I do not forget or dissemble 
that a large part of cattle food, especially the winter 
supply, is provided by cultivation, as beans and oats 
for horses, turnips and other roots for sheep and oxen. 
Still, the movement towards Vegetarianism would be a 
movement for native cultivation and rustic industry. 

I count confidently on public sympathy when I say 
that it is a depraving tendency, sadly common with 
English lads, to desire to kill a beautiful animal the 



56 ESSAYS ON DIET, 

moment they see it. That the first thought on discover- 
ing a new creature should be * Is it nice to eat ? ' is to me 
shocking and debasing. What is called the love of sport 
has become a love of killing for the display of skill, and 
converts man into the tyrant of all other animals ; yet 
this rose out of a desire of eating their flesh — a desire 
which cannot be blamed in that state of barbarism in 
which little other food was to be had. But when with 
the growth of civilization other food is easier to get, 
when bread has won upon flesh-meat, it is evil to struggle 
for the more barbarous state. Does not the love of flesh 
inflame the love of killing, teach disregard for animal 
suffering, and prepare men for ferocity against men ? I 
think so. It is possible to carry too far the reluctance of 
the Turk and the Brahmin to take brute life ; yet how 
can any humane person deny that they can teach the 
English nation some valuable lessons ? I find it good to 
rejoice in the grandeur of a stag and the beauty of a 
pheasant. Any good girl would be more delighted that 
the stag should conie to eat out of her hand than that 
she should be promised a piece of venison to eat. Surely 
the reciprocation of kind feeling between man and the 
wild animal is a very pure delight, and it is so universal 
to children that I certainly cannot claim any merit in 
feeling it. The late Charles Darwin tells that when 
ships of his expedition touched at the Galipago Islands 
he found nearly all the birds and beasts tame from their 
unacquaintance with human violence. A hawk would 
not stir till pushed off* the branch of a tree. The birds 
settled on the edges of buckets to drink the water which 
the sailors were carrying. A boy sat by the side of a 
spring with a stick in his hand, and with it killed the 
little birds which came to drink without fear of him, until 
he had enough of them for his dinner. 



ESSAYS ON DIET, 57 



How cruel and shocking ! Who of us would not re 
gard such an island as a little Paradise ? Who would not 
willingly give up the eating of birds if he could thereby 
purchase the universal confidence of the feathered race, 
and live in the midst of them as their friend ? Barbarous 
mail, struggling for existence, must be harsh, cruel, 
treacherous to beasts ; but is it not high time to throw 
off the sentiments of barbarous ages, or, rather, to forbid 
those traditional habits from depraving the tenderer 
wisdom which our children so often display ? What un- 
corrupted child on seeing a beautiful bird, or a lamb, or 
a calf, would wish it killed to enjoy dining on it ? Un- 
doubtedly the beauty of the creature, with the delight of 
seeing it alive, is the main reason for pity in the thought 
of its death ; yet we may be certain that the principle 
here involved cannot be halved for the benefit of the 
beautiful and to the neglect of the uglier. None of us 
grieve if fewer swine are alive to-day than yesterday, yet 
as long as men feed even on swine they will feed on 
every creature which yields healthful food. The beautiful 
animals whose trust in us might be a daily delight justly 
dread and shun us. Our hearts are so hardened against 
them that we endure their being mangled by steel traps 
and lingering in excruciating agony. English sport is 
likely to continue, and Christendom to be still called by 
Orientals *The Hell of Animals,' unless wholly new 
principles are adopted. Are we aware into what a mon- 
strosity the love of sport has developed itself, in what 
are called shooting-grounds, especially in Scotland ? All 
human inhabitants are removed from wide areas of land, 
on which none but gamekeepers are ordinarily allowed 
to tread ; it is reserved for game — for deer principally, 
and grouse. Why ? In order to let it out for rent in 
the shooting-season to some rich man of the south — say. 



58 ESSA YS ON DIET. 

a Manchester or Birmingham manufacturer, who, for the 
pleasure of shooting two or three months in the year, will 
pay a higher rent than the landlord calculates he can get 
from human inhabitants. I do not stop to argue the 
question of law and right between man and man, between 
landlords and the nation, here involved ; but I insist that, 
if we were a vegetarian nation, the whole thing would be 
impossible. It is true that cockney sportsmen shoot at 
sparrows and seagulls, and at anything else that they 
dare, to try their skill ; but this could not be attempted 
on any great scale without causing a violent revulsion of 
feeling. Indeed, already we have laws for the partial 
protection of sea-birds, which are not human food. 
Nothing but the fact that deer and grouse, are eaten 
makes shooting-grounds, as a system, at all endurable to 
the conscience of the nation. 

Let us turn to another topic. The young son of a 
friend of mine, in summer, took a walking tour in North 
Germany, in the beautiful country called Thuringia. On 
his return he was asked what had most struck him as 
unlike England. He replied the great abundance of fruit 
trees, and of fruit growing on the roadside and along the 
open paths, no one seeming to fear that it would be 
stolen. Of course I am not able to account this a 
triumph of Vegetarianism as a principle, yet it has some- 
thing to do with Vegetarianism as a practice. The small 
German freeholders, like the English and Irish peasants, 
though in no respect averse to flesh-eating, in fact live 
chiefly on farinaceous food, pulse, and jams. I believe 
that the abundance of fruit, and the abstinence from theft, 
depends largely on the system of small freeholds. It is 
worth men's while to plant fruit trees, when the planter 
or his children enjoy the fruit. When property in fruit 
is widely diffused the masses of the nation respect it; 



ESSAYS ON DIET. 59 

children early learn from their parents a reverence for 
their neighbour's fruit ; at the same time its abundance 
and cheapness hinders covetous desire. 

I dp not believe that we can attain that state of things 
without vast changes, both in land tenure and in public 
opinion, concerning rights in land. But I believe that 
vegetarian sentiment will add healthy impetus to wise 
and just views on the whole subject. How few of us now 
grieve that only barren trees are * planted on soil and in 
situations where fruit trees would grow as easily ! A 
wealthy squire wants shelter for his house ; what does he 
plant ? Anything rather than fruit trees. Scrubby oak, 
larch, fir. He does not think of apples, pears, cherries ; 
he plants beech, or ash, or elm, rather than walnuts or 
mulberries, horse-chestnuts rather than sweet chestnuts. 
Why? Because, if he dared to plant fruit, his hedges 
and walls would be broken to steal it, and he would 
have no end of trouble. Thus through the immorality 
of the poor the market is starved, and the poor them- 
selves are the chief sufferers. Their habit of pilfering 
has risen out of a sense that a landlord's legal rights are 
excessive and unjust. 

To get out of this evil tangle is very difficult. But 
every vegetarian desires a little garden of his own, and 
fruit bushes or fruit trees of his own ; and ev6ry pro- 
prietor, however small, imbibes respect for his own form 
of property. Every vegetarian believes that orchards 
ought to abound over the land ; that whole fields should 
be devoted to apples and pears, and that the price of 
such fruit might be indefinitely reduced. We certainly 
do not yet know the capacity of our climate. There is 
little chance, while large market gardeners have every- 
thing in their hands, that they will cultivate even vege- 
tables which are not already universally known, however • 



6o ESSAYS ON DIET. 

prized by individuals. Vegetables introduced by German 
residents of Manchester, which flourish excellently in our 
climate, the great caterers for the market will not grow, 
fearing the risk of the public not liking them. Even the 
German pea, with a tender eatable pod, no one can buy 
in the English market. There is certainly a great work 
for some one in teaching the English nation what is good 
in new fruits and new vegetables ; I do not mean good 
in flavour merely, but every way beneficial as diet. Yet 
apparently, while this craving after flesh continues, there 
is little chance that the wealth of the soil will be deve- 
loped, or the millions earn that independence and dignity 
of labour which is possible. 

Thus far I have urged the dangers of disease from 
butcher's meat, the waste of humble men's resources in 
the effort to get it, the evil of converting arable land into 
grazing, the debasing tendency of loving to kill game, and 
the neglect of fruits and vegetables, for which our climate 
and soil are suited. I have said nothing of fish. It is 
true that the economic objections to butcher's meat do 
not apply against fish from the sea, nor is the moral 
objection to killing them equal to that against killing 
birds. Fish do not displace crops on the soil, and are a 
real addition to the food of a nation. But, except on the 
sea-coast, fish on the average is dearer than mutton — I 
believe I may say far dearer, and has less nourishment, 
pound for pound. Flabby fish, which is very unnutritious, 
and will not bear transport, is not coveted, and may re- 
main cheap. But the really solid kinds are not cheap 
anywhere, I believe — skate, perhaps, excepted — and are 
in general enormously dear, as turbot and salmon. I do 
not know that a pound of salmon gives more nourish- 
ment than a pound of mutton, even to those who are 
• able to digest it ; hence, until the price of fish is enor- 



£SSA YS ON DIET, 6i 



mously reduced, it is difficult to say much in their favour 
from the economic side, except so far as they are used as 
condiment, like anchovy, herring, sardines, or even sprats. 
Vegetarians, being desirous of attesting that their strength 
is not supported on fish any more than on beasts and 
fowls, think it right to abstain even from these condi- 
ments ; but it is not likely that they will devote any large 
portion of their zeal to dissuade people from them. 
Rather they will take for granted that those who on the 
whole see reasons for abstinence from flesh will think it 
wiser, in the present state of opinion, when the example 
of every abstainer tells for something, to aim at that com- 
pleteness in a broad principle, which all alike are sure to 
understand. 

Some may be perhaps disappointed that I do not 
here enter into proofs that farinaceous food suffices for 
strength and health. Indeed, doctrine so opposite is 
sedulously preached that I think it better to refer to 
those who can speak with authority on this question. 
Celebrated physiologists — few of them vegetarians — 
assert that farinaceous food and pulse suffice abundantly 
for strength, and tend eminently to health and long life. 

I therefore content myself with saying that the in- 
habitants of county Kerry and county Cork are by im- 
partial testimony singularly beautiful and strong, though 
nourished on potatoes with, at most, buttermilk ; that the 
Scotch, living on oatmeal, are on the whole stronger and 
healthier than the English ; that the porters and boatmen 
of Turkey equal the strongest navvies of the English rail- 
ways ; and that I am persuaded a general survey of the 
broad facts of the human race show it to be a delusion 
that flesh-meat ever gives to men who labour with body 
or mind any advantage whatever. 

Let me here state the pleasure it gives me to lecture 



62 ESSAYS ON DIET. 

on this subject within a Friends' Institute. Friends from 
their origin have emphatically taken as their motto, * Be 
not conformed to this world.' They have espoused the 
most unpopular causes for the sake of truth and justice, 
defying dominant opinion, prevalent practices, fashions, 
and power. They have been foremost against that greatest 
of iniquities now dying out — Chattel Slavery. They have 
championed the rights of woman, and nearly every form 
of mercy. I will not call them our forlorn hope, but in 
apparently the most hopeless assaults on evil they have 
been leaders. No foreign victims of evil so call on them 
now as the most wretched of our own population, who 
cannot, indeed, be raised by any one form of action, but 
only by many combined. And it is simply impossible to 
lift them out of their misery and rottenness, unless they 
are trained to avoid ensnaring drink and expensive eat- 
ing. Vegetarianism is only secondary to abstinence from 
alcoholic liquors in elevating the people. It directly pro- 
motes that gentleness of heart which abhors bloodshed, 
and indirectly that hatred of war for which the Friends 
have always been eminent. 



ESSA YS ON DIET. 63 



V. 



WHAT IS VEGETARIANISM, AND WHAT IS ITS PLACE IN 
THE ETHICS AND ECONOMICS OF OUR TIME? 

I WAS led to Study the question of Vegetarianism during 
the first cattle murrain, and approached it on the side of 
political economy and for avoidance of disease among 
the poor. I did not at all believe it could suit me per- 
sonally, yet was ashamed to talk or write in favour of it 
without at least trying it. Upon trial I soon found my 
digestion to improve— carefully rejecting white bread, and 
getting the brownest which was to be had. I had pre- 
viously by medical order eaten flesh-meat regularly twice 
a day, and rather largely. Dinner pills were ordered me 
to assist digestion of so much meat. These I abandoned 
with flesh-food, and have never resumed them. My 
general health is better than I can remember it, nor has 
my enjoyment of food at all lessened. In my seventy- 
eighth year I need neither doctors nor medicine. By 
general testimony the colour of my skin and fulness of 
my cheeks have much improved under this diet, which I 
would now on no account give up, though I adopted it 
with much more of fear than of hope. 

The increased price of flesh-meat has become an 
untractable fact, distressing to the gentry, who cannot 
increase their income, and to thousands of small house- 



64 ESSAYS ON DIET, 

holds in our vast trading community. To the artizans 
who have acquired habits of flesh-eating within th^ last 
twenty-five years, it neutralizes the advantage of their 
higher wages, even when they are abstinent or very 
moderate as to intoxicating drinks. Necessarily then the 
whole question of diet is coming forward into fuller dis- 
cussion, and interests thousands who a few years ago 
never gave to it continuous or attentive thought. 

There are three main topics, on one or all of which 
those who assume the name Vegetarian base their absti- 
nence from the flesh of animals : the argument of 
economy (private or national) ; the argument of physi- 
ology — which bears on health, longevity, and even moral 
temperament ; thirdly, the argument from the rights of 
animals. To different minds these arguments bear a 
different scale of importance. Naturally, to statesmen 
the argument of national economy, determining the popu- 
lation which a given area of soil can feed, may seem 
primary ; but with those who, not through poverty, 
abstain from flesh-food, other arguments generally take 
the lead. 

The author of the classical work on * Fruits and 
Farinacea* was brought to renounce flesh-meat from 
being led to study the basis of our rights over the lives 
of animals. He came to the conclusion that without 
decisive and urgent necessity we have no right to deprive 
harmless animals of life ; and on pursuing his inquiry 
further, he convinced himself that to feed on their flesh 
does not conduce to superior health, strength, or lon- 
gevity, but contrariwise. Beginning from this side of the 
subject, he worked out the whole of it, so that at last it 
was hard to say which of the three topics he regarded as 
principal. 

The late Mr. Joseph Brotherton, long distinguished in 



ASSAYS ON DIET, 65 

Parliament as the vegetarian member, and signal for vigour 
in advancing years, certainly gave no practical prominence 
to the economy of Vegetarianism, and was probably 
allured to it like Mr. John Smith, the author of a work 
to which we have just made reference, on what may be 
called the Brahminical side, by the tenderness of his 
nature and his strong sense of universal justice. ^ ^ 

One might gather from the -comments of the public 
prints on the vegetarian festivals of those days, that the 
leading vegetarians some twenty years ago were more 
anxious to. convince rich men what luxurious repasts they 
could give without flesh-food by elaborate cookery, than 
to show-tO:ppor"men-7-and to all who desired to spend as 
little as might be on lower appetite — how simple and 
cheap is a satisfying vegetarian fare. Of course it is 
possible to be as extravagant on one form of cookery as 
another. There is no upper limit. It is only concerning 
the lower limit that there can be available discussion. 

The topic of health and longevity is naturally 
prominent with all yegetarian physicians. Dr. Lambe, 
in the past generation, gave a life-long adhesion to this 
practice, and an enthusiastic advocacy of its excellence. 
Before him. Dr. Cheyne, of Bath, though less consistent 
and thorough-going, gave very, remarkable testimonies, 
especially to the efficacy of vegetarian diet in chronic 
diseases. It must at once appear how many important 
inquiries crowd in, as soon as the relation of diet to the 
health of invalids is touched. While men and women 
are in rude , health and live simply without excess, the 
. stomach digests with seeming indifference a vast variety 
. of food. . Whatever can nourish appears to be healthful, 
and all scruple about the kind of food sounds like 
pedantry or superfluous care. Not so with invalids. 
Not so with those who live a sedentary life— those whp 

F 



66 ESSA YS ON DIET. 

disproportionately use the brain — those whose nervous 
system is over-stimulated — those who have no full and 
regular muscular action. In these health cannot be 
robust and rude : and if food less natural to man — that 
is, less completely suited to his organisation — be used, 
one may reasonably expect frequent damage to health 
and some shortening of life unawares. When it is 
manifest how large a fraction of English diseases among 
our middle and upper classes arises from the stomach, 
diet must assume a first-rate importance with physicians ; 
though it is said (probably with truth) that our townsmen 
and our upper classes, and the servants of the rich, suffer 
far more from excess in quantity than from any error in 
quality. 

With such complexity in the questions concerned, 
there is evidently room for great variety in the details of 
vegetarian practice. We might expect, what indeed we 
find, a few vegetarians rigid in the extreme. The late 
Mr. George Dornbusch, of Threadneedle Street, went 
even beyond Vegetarianism. He not only abstained 
from all the received animal foods — from everything that 
had animal life, and from eggs, milk and its products — 
but from every form of vegetable grease or oil, from the 
chief vegetable spices, such as pepper and ginger, and 
emphatically from salt. The present writer, in a long 
conversation with him, entirely failed of discovering, 
beyond the argument that salt is a mineral, any other 
ground for these abstinences than that they agreed best 
with him. He took only two meals in the day, and 
could boast of unbroken health in very continuous 
business. On one remarkable occasion he was assailed 
in the street by an escaped lunatic, who stabbed him in 
twenty-three places. He went into the first chemist's 
shop, and had his wounds bound up. Loss of blood 



ESSAYS GN DIET. 67 

caused him much weakness, forcing him to be absent 
from business for a fortnight ; but he wanted no medical 
advice, nor any drugs : every wound healed easily, and 
he was soon perfectly recovered. Finally, through too 
much trust in the strength of his constitution, he exposed 
himself unwisely to cold when already suffering from 
bronchitis, and the hot bath did not save him from being 
carried off in the midst of vigorous life. 

Another gentleman informed me, that without know- 
ing there was a Vegetarian Society in England, or being 
acquainted with any one who followed their tenets, he 
once lived for three years on fruits only, and is convinced 
that at no time in his life was he so strong ; but he gave 
it up from the inconvenience of the practice. A few 
vegetarians (only a small fraction of those known) abstain 
from milk and eggs as severely as from beast, bird, and 
fish ; some, from the desire to carry a principle through 
so completely as to avoid all cavil ; others, from the con- 
sideration that so long as there is a demand for milk, 
male calves and oxen will be killed for the table and 
probably cows also before they pass middle age. 

Another possible form of abstinence is regarded by 
the Vegetarian Society as far too imperfect to be recog- 
nized at all or to deserve a name ; yet there is no com- 
promise so likely to be widely adopted by our nation as 
that alluded to, viz. : to abstain from quadruped and fowl, 
but to accept fish and marine animals. Inasmuch as no 
pure vegetarians can reasonably hope that a nation long 
accustomed to flesh-meat will collectively change its 
habit, except in a course of several generations, this im- 
perfect form of abstinence might seem to deserve their 
warm encouragement. Fish do not occupy arable land. 
Fish have no family life or family affection. To take one 

life does not torture another. Their multiplication is far 

F 2 



68 SSSA yS ON DIET. 

beyond estimate. Our capture of them generally is, and 
ought always to be, painless. If it be admitted to a 
severe vegetarian (what is hard to prove) that to eat a 
fish-dinner once a week somewhat shortens life, yet perhaps 
no vegetarian will assert that the use of the marine 
sauces, or of caviar, or of isinglass, has any such tendency. 
Hence a diet such as poorer men would naturally take, 
resorting to marine products rather as an aid to cookery 
than for the substance of food,- appears to reduce the 
objections of- vegetarians to a minimum. It • may be 
permitted to dwell a little on this topic. 

While on the whole, to any family of the gentry or of 
thriving shopmen, a vegetarian diet which admits milk 
and eggs sparingly may be far cheaper than one into 
which butcher's meat, pork, fowl, and fish freely enter; 
those who are a little poorer find gravy and fats hard 
to dispense with, because of the high price to which all 
good butter is run up, . Suet indeed itself is dear ; good 
oil is dearer ; mustard oil might perhaps be" yery^ cheap, 
and is largely used by the poor in India ; but at present 
bacon-fat, lard, and dripping have strong hold of the 
common imagination. Moreover, such articles as sprats, 
bloaters, herrings, and sauces made of marine animals, 
give either strong taste or oiliness to many forms of food 
which, unless skilfully cooked and seasoned, are judged 
mawkish. 

Instinct is quite right in demanding flavour, and a 
fair supply of oleaginous material. The poor, nay the 
whole nation, has yet to learn how to cook well and with 
least trouble. It is new to the present generation of 
English workmen to have butcher's meat even once a day ; 
a little wise persuasion may induce many to abstain from 
it on principle, as their fathers did from necessity ; but to 
refuse, not bacon-fat only, but also red herrings, bloaters, 



> t 



ESSAYS ON DIET. 69 

and sprats, is a still harder thing for those who cannot 
afford butter — who have no supply of savoury herbs, and no 
experience in cooking. If any mass of our workmen 
could be induced to adopt the more moderate abstinence 
of accepting the animal produce of the seas, but refusing 
that of the land, many of the most valuable results claimed 
by vegetarians would be obtained. Besides, if the 
principle of studying what is the best food once gain 
ascendency, the more severe rule surely wins on the laxer. 

But even by the laxer' rule we' should reverse the error 
made from 1847 onward. In 1845 and 1846, before the 
actual repeal of the "Corn Lawsi it was ^ predicted by 
General Perronet Thompson and Colonel Torrens, advo- 
cates of the repeal, that one result would be a great 
increase" of demand for butcher's meat, dairy produce, and 
garden vegetables, by which' the farmers would grow rich. 

So if shortly proved. As fast as wages rose in the 
towns - through increased commercial prosperity, the 
artizan population consumed more and more flesh-meat. 
By a coincidence no doubt accidental, in 1847 the Vege- 
tarian Society was formed, and year by year proclaimed 
to the multitude the wisdom of saving their money by a 
more economic diet, which was on several other grounds 
far better. 

But the newspapers treated them with ridicule ; 
miedical practitioners and the employers of navvies 
zealously preached up butcher's meat ; the mass of the 
nation never had the arguments brought before them ; 
the rush after flesh-meat continued, until murrain after 
murrain resulted among the cattle ; panic followed ; public 
slaughtering was commanded, in order to * stamp out ' 
the disease ; prices, already high, were hoisted higher and 
higher, until many begun to ask whence this had arisen, 
and in what it would end. No great research was really 



70 ESS A YS ON DIET. 



needed to trace the action of causes. When an enriched 
population eagerly brought up all the butcher's meat that 
was to be had, two simultaneous efforts were made ; the 
one, by bringing cattle in great numbers and from more 
distant places ; the other, by breeding them as fast as 
could be managed. Cattle that are driven long distances 
on their feet undergo much fatigue, with frequent beating 
and terror. If put on board a steamer, things are no 
better with them, but oftener much worse. To be tossed 
about in the hold by a rough sea is a frightful infliction. 
Even if they be effectually tied, the terror and suffering is 
extreme. The air is made foul, sometimes pestilential. 
To get the animals up and down is difficult in proportion 
to their weight. Even in tranquil weather they can 
seldom be left on deck ; so that, on the whole, one must 
expect a sensible fraction to arrive in a febrile or diseased 
condition. Indeed, to supply them with water during a 
voyage is a difficult operation. Nor, in fact, is trans- 
mission by rail much better. In long travel they have 
seldom due supplies of water. During the first murrain, 
which Government officers and * experts' attributed to 
CONTAGION from foreign cattle (for our men of science 
expect us to believe that England cannot generate 
disease at home ; it all, forsooth, must come from 
abroad ; vice and unnatural treatment never breed 
maladies on our pure soil !) the railway cars were no 
sooner freed from one troop of cattle than another was 
crowded into them. 

Such are the enormities which grow out of blind zeal 
to get rapidly to a market. With such things in the heart 
of our country we were to stamp out the murrain by 
excluding foreign cattle, and by killing and burying at 
public expense our own, when suspected of disease. Men 
may make no end of laws, and multiply police to enforce 



ESSAYS ON DIET, 71 

them ; but fresh and fresh malpractices, unforeseen by 
statesmen, are sure to spring up, if avarice be adequately 
stimulated by demand from rich customers. 

So much of the distant travel ; but to look at the 
metropolis only, can we believe that, by building at vast 
expense the new Caledonian Market, the atrocities on the 
cattle can be avoided for which Smithfield was condemned? 
True, one may have more reception-room when they at 
length arrive, but the effort of getting them through 
narrow and crowded streets is not less, and the street- 
distance to be traversed must now in many cases be far 
greater. To transfer such masses of living creatures week 
by week and day by day in sound health to distant 
centres must always be an anxious problem. The im- 

• 

porter does not willingly consent to have his beasts con- 
fiscated for the public safety, and generally persuades 
himself that the case is less urgent. Private interest, 
which it is often hard to call cupidity, constantly struggles 
to outwit official vigilance. Also, the beasts have to be 
driven from the market to the slaughter-house ; and the 
complaints made of the inevitable cruelties and frequent 
public danger in getting them along the streets, are as 
vehement as anything that could be said fifty years ago. 
The medical officer declares that the slaughter-houses in 
Whitechapel and Aldgate perceptibly damage the health 
of the neighbourhood. 

Meanwhile, what as to the raising of stock at home ? 
To feed the shambles as largely as possible, the cows are 
killed in middle age, young heifers replace them, and 
progeny is raised from immature parents. This is attested 
by graziers, some of whom have imputed to it the foot- 
and-mouth disease. Without believing their theory^ we 
yet must not overlook their attested ^r// and it appears 
almost certain, that if for twenty years together cattle be 



72 ESSAYS ON DIET. 

thus bred, the race must become feebler in constitution, 
and thereby more liable to imbibe and sink under what- 
ever disease may happen to be in the air, or to be brought 
in by contagioa .' . ... 

Thus, on all sides, the inevitable result comes out, 
that when a nation demands more butcher's meat than 
can come to each place from the immediate neighbour- 
hood and without artificial stimulus, a formidable fraction 
of the -supply will arrive in a state dangerous': to the 
public This is no accident : it must be a permanent 
fact if the present demand be permanent The hundreds 
of tons of meat hitherto confiscated by the superin- 
tendents of the markets will not become fewer : in the 
margin beyond what is condemned, there will always be, 
as now, a quantity probably larger still, on which suspicion 
rests. Considerable masses are always sold off cheap ; 
and so long as poor men regard butcher's meat as a 
necessity, the headth of thousands will suffer by taint in 
food which has escaped the public inspector. 

This one consideration appears to the writer to be of 
paramount importance. Weighty as are other arguments 
of vegetarians, none appear so urgent as this. Therefore, 
to repress the demand for butcher's meat by advice and 
by example — to induce the artizan population to go back 
to the habit of their immediate parents — to prevent the 
longing for a daily meal of mutton, pork, or beef, now 
loudly preached to the agricultural labourers as their due 
— seems to be of grave national importance. To eat, or 
not to eat, sprats or dry herrings hardly deserves to be 
regarded as a co-ordinate question with the danger of 
eating infection, as the punishment for foolish, harsh, and 
cruel treatment of hundreds of thousands of harmless 
sheep and oxen. 

No effort is here made to exhibit the immense mass 



ESSAYS ON DIET. 73 

pf broad facts, based on the state of whole nations, which 
proves decisively that vegetarian diet is able to produce 
the maximum of human strength. As usual, men pre- 
tending to science quote cases of nawks who worked 
better on rumpsteaks. Suchlike narrow experiences 
almost always admit of a simple solution : *Pay men 
better, and they work with a hearty will ; pay men better, 
and they also rush into sensual indulgence.* But these 
overfed navvies are not healthy. The tale of them is 
that of athletes according to Aristotle, who were wholly 
unsound because they * over- ate and over- worked.-^ - The 
reader must- be referred to the pages of Mr. John Smith, 
of M/giltpn, or rather to its abridgment by the Vegetarian 
Society, for the abundant evidence of the remarkable 
strength of nations who feed on grain and other fruits of 
the earth.^ 

Hitherto, as has often perhaps been remarked, the 
rich eat whatever they like, and the poor whatever they 
can get. Few indeed appear to have made the inquiry, 
either morally or physiologically, What is best for a nation 
to eat ? On the other side of the Atlantic we have a 
warning to what our national habits tend. In the 
American Union physical abundance has long reached 
the lowest class ; butcher's meat is eaten as often as they 
please by the population in ; town and country, yet no 
part of the English race is so unhealthy. Stomach- 
ailments, and nostrums to relieve them, abound there as 
nowhere else ; a prevalent haggard aspect seems to tell 
of unsound nourishment ; but possibly over- work of brain 
may in some cases conspire to the result In Australia, 
some  allege, the Yankee type of countenance already 

* Fruits and Farinacea, by John Smith, of Malton. Abridged by the 
Vegetarian'Society. I^ndon : F. Pitman, Paternoster Row, 2nd ed. 
1883. Price One Shilling, 



74 ESSAYS ON DIET. 

appears ; but all is too new there to rest an argument on. 
In New York and the neighbourhood, in order to get a 
sufficient supply of milk, the cows are fed on the refuse of 
distilleries, by which the quantity of the milk is increased 
and the quality deteriorated. Moreover the cows, con- 
fined in cellars, become emaciated and diseased. Such 
are the mischiefs which our artificial modern contrivances 
entail. 

A second evil of the great demand for butcher's meat 
and dairy produce is, that the high price makes it worth 
while to restore cultivated land to grass. The farmer 
saves the wages of tillage, of weeding, and of gathering 
crops ; yet one cannot tell d priori, whether he would 
prefer to devote the fields to crops for the consumption of 
cattle, and (perhaps) keep .the animals in stables. But it 
is sufficiently testified in Government Blue Books, that in 
Ireland land is now given back to grass in order to rear 
more cattle and sheep. Hereby the soil is rendered 
immensely less productive of human food. The rustic 
population are less needed, and must be driven into 
towns to compete for work or to swell the ranks of 
paupers, or emigrate to enrich other soils ; while our 
towns become more and more dependent on the foreigner 
for food. This stage of national existence, denoted by 
overgrown towns, and rural places occupied by many 
cattle and few men, strongly marks the period of decay, 
and cannot too soon alarm us. 

But it will be observed that, whether the population 
does or does not eat fish, neither usage promotes any of 
the evils which (in our present stage) attach to a general 
coveting of butcher's meat. The supply of fish is just so 
much added to the national food, without using up an 
acre of cultivable land. It cannot cause displacement of 
rustic labour. Dead fish may, no doubt, be sold when 



ESSA YS ON DJET. 75 



unwholesome : so may vegetables. But to beware of 
each evil is comparatively easy. The fish is ordinarily 
brought to shore alive, in a perfectly natural state, in its 
own element. 

The argument here is simply that from the vegetarian 
point of view it is of comparatively slight importance at 
the present crisis to induce the mass of the people to for- 
swear fish, as stick. Few get fish other than sprats, skates, 
and sometimes mackerel and herrings. If a pledge con- 
duce to steadiness of conduct (as many find) it would 
seem expedient to have a series of pledges varying in 
stringency, so that each my select that which his circum- 
stances allow him to carry out. 

But we turn now to a side of the subject which must 
grow in importance — the supply of milk. It was men- 
tioned that the Vegetarian Society, while condemning 
suet and lard, distinctly permits the use of milk, butter, 
and cheese. But milk and butter, alas ! are now most 
difficult for our rustics to attain. The railroads give 
facilities of transport, and the towns buy up the dairy 
produce wholesale. In many places farmers contract with 
shopmen in towns to supply so much, that they have 
little or nothing left to sell to their own neighbours. If 
to potatoes buttermilk can be added, an Irishman has all 
that nature needs ; but if not even buttermilk can be had, 
potatoes are not a sufficient food, nor is brown wheaten 
bread by itself palatable, unless it be in its prime of ex- 
cellence. Charitable persons have been known to pur- 
chase preserved Swiss milk, dilute it with the due pro- 
portion of hot water, and sell it to our peasants, who 
otherwise had no chance of purchasing milk at all. 

When such facts raised the inquiry, * Could not our 
rustics have cows of their own, if a run for them was 
allowed ! ' the thought moved a nobleman whose philan- 



76 ESSAYS ON DIET. 

thropy we do not call in question, to abrupt laughter ; so 
absurdly impossible did he regard it. Yet in other coun- 
tries it is not impossible ; and even in Scotland some 
large farmers deem it for their interest to allow cow- 
pasture to their labourers. Over the peasants' inability to 
get -m^at-fibre as food, it is not necessary to mourn ; but 
the deprivation of even skim-milk and buttermilk is a 
serious fact which urgently calls for remedy. Even 
wandering Arabs and Turkomans, who rarely taste flesh, 
account milk and its products a very important part of 
food. That our greedy towns should be able to buy all 
up and leave the peasants empty, is a* national scandal 
Evidently the milk ought in some sense to be in the 
peasant's own han4s, so that he may have the option of 
detaining it for the use of his family. 

It is generally' imagined that in vegetarian cookery 
great quantities of milk and eggs are necessarily used. 
This is a mistake; nay, some vegetarians do not use 
these articles- at all. Still, it is unfortunate, that when 
they are not entirely renounced it is always open to 
opponents to say that they are inordinately used: and 
this often is asserted- very broadly,* though without at- 
tempt at proof— ^proof and disproof being alike difficult. 
The assertion springs out of two erroneous assumptions 
— (i) that there is in every vegetarian a craving after the 
nitrogenous element supplied by the lean of meat, by 
milk and by eggs ; (2) that the supply cannot be obtained 
from purely vegetarian food. 

The second error ought not to be made in the present 
state of science. For more than twenty years it has been 
notorious, and conceded beyond controversy, that the 
gluten of wheaten brown bread and of barley is chemi- 
cally identical with albumen; that is to say, with the 
substance of flesh-meat ; also that beans, peas, and lentils 



1 



£SSAYS ON DIET, 77 

■i I 1. 1 I [ » —  — 

are richer in nitrogen than is lean beef itself. The purest 
vegetarian does not need to suffer from any deficiency of 
nitrogen, and vegetarians in general steadily deny that 
they have any craving for such food. Indeed, it has 
been irt- morel recent years ascertained that the nitroge- 
nous or flesh-forming element is of immensely less im- 
portance than the ^^«/- giving element, for the latter is 
that.wjiich gives vital force. If a man works very hard, 
he somewhat wears away the muscular tissues, on which 
account he needs a littk more of albumen ; but the 
exhausjjpn Qfiyital force, is, by far the graver drain upon 
him, a*nd even when we work least, there must be a large 
expenditure of the latter, kind. Starchy and oily sub- 
stances supply heat and force; and these substances 
abound in the vegetable world. If any vegetarians be 
extravagant in milk and eggs, it is not from any craving 
of their stomachs, but from excess of zeal or ignorance in 
the cooks. In every house of moderate wealth the cook 
likes to make her dishes highly palatable, and will prob- 
ably, be lavish in the use of these popular delicacies, 
unless steadily checked by the mistress. 

To. the .present [writer, ever since he has adopted 
vegetarian practice, it has been matter of conscience not 
to increase his use of eggs and milk— of milk especially ; 
because to .make a run on it involves all the same evils 
as to /make a run on butcher's meat. • In fact, if any one 
can reconcile himself to the use of oil in cookery, there 
is no difficulty whatever ; otherwise there is probably a 
necessary increase in the use of butter in preparing vege- 
tables when other animal fats are refused. Different 
vegetable oiU have, no doubt, different flavours ; and a 
little more experience will teach us how, by a slight addi- 
tion of vegetable acid or of some savoury herb, any taste 
pf an oil offensive to an individual may be corrected. 



78 ESSAYS ON DIET. 



Skim-milk, buttermilk, and cheese retain the nitrogenous 
element ; hence, added to potatoes or bread, they make 
very complete human food. In buying up the country 
butter, the towns do not rob the rustics quite so cruelly 
as when they take the milk itself; still it is very inexpe- 
dient and essentially unfair. If vegetarians are to hold 
up a noble and profitable example to others, they must 
not only jealously restrict their own consumption of milk 
and its products, but ever be aiming to lessen it 

The argument on this side would become prudential 
and personal if we could believe that the statements 
about pestilential milk which have had currency in our 
newspapers point at any general facts and soundly ex- 
pound principles. Cows, it is said, fed on unwholesome 
grass, were not visibly and at once made ill^ but their milk 
instantly became pestilential, and whole families suffered 
mysterious diseases from it. There has been plenty of 
unwholesome water and herbage in all past ages to do 
cows harm, if their instinct did not avoid it Have our 
cows suddenly lost skill in the choice of food ? When 
by an excessive use of liquid manure the grass of a 
meadow has been made pestilential, if cows through 
hunger eat it and it be poisonous to their milk, must it 
not first be poisonous to their blood and quickly alarm 
the cowkeeper ? Do men wish to poison their own cows ? 
Or can they do so and be blind to the fact ? One may 
be pardoned some incredulity, however respectable the 
medical authority which is said to have traced the evil 
home to its source. 

To return to the question of national consumption — 
it is beyond dispute that by injudicious choice of food a 
nation may starve upon a soil which is amply sufficient 
for it Horses we keep, not to feed on, but for service. 
But oxen are no longer used for the plough or the cart, 



ESSAYS ON DIET. 79 

or very rarely. They are raised for food ; and to get the 
same amount of human food through them needs three 
or four times as much land as would be required if we 
fed on grain, pulse, potatoes, or fruit suitable to our cli- 
mate. 

So little are the minds of even educated people exer- 
cised on these topics, that ridiculous objections are con- 
stantly made by them. * How can you get nitrogenous 
food to make you muscular, if you do not eat beef or 
mutton ? ' asks one gentleman who has a smattering of 
chemistry. But liow do the bull and the horse get their 
muscle without eating flesh ? Evidently they get it, not 
only out of grain, but even out of grass, to which our 
organs are not equal: but the element must be in the 
grass, unless you admit that they get nitrogen from the 
air by masticating ; and if they can, so can we quite as 
well. * What will you do for manure ? ' says another, 
* if you do not keep cattle ? ' But if you return to the 
soil all refuse of plants, and, in short, whatever you take 
out of it, no exhaustion can follow. Exhaustion is caused 
if you send the whole crop clear away, as, not least, when 
you annually export herds of cattle. * The oxen would 
eat us up if we did not eat them,' is also a common 
remark. But why, then, do not the horses, whom we do 
not eat, eat us up ? Our graziers do their utmost to 
multiply the oxen, yet the objector is not aware that 
their number is now artificially great. In fact, the oxen 
may be justly said nom to eat us up, for they lessen 
largely the number of men who can live from our soil. 

Our whole treatment of these cattle is quite against 
nature. Fifty and a hundred years ago the employment 
of oxen for the plough was in many counties still kept 
up, and there is no adequate reason why (with an im- 
proved breed) all the heaviest work on a farm should not 



8o JSSSA VS ON DIET, 

be done by the bulls, as in Virgil's day. Exercete^ viri ! 
tauros. High-bred bulls walk faster than heavy cart- 
horses, and might advantageously- supersede them. If 
fondled from early days,^ they are quite gentle; and 
costeris paridus, they are stronger for draught than horses. 
The very form of the horse marks him as designed for 
swiftness, that of the bull for weight and strength. Give 
back to the bull his functions in agriculture, and you will 
not need to ask, * What can we do with him if we will 
not cat him ? ' any more than concerning the horse. 

While it is in many ways. evident that for national 
economy — for a wise application of national resources t— 
we ought to feed on. the direct .produpe of the soil, the 
arguments of private econoiti}? come home more quickly 
to each of us. ' Fdr;^wer:hate'the positive testimony of 
the first chemists as to the'.real.' superiority of grain and 
pulse, and dried ca4>bage,'.or dried cauliflower, and nuts, 
and dried apples, and potatoes, to equal weights of dried 
meat;. so that it is very easy to convince oneself that a 
flesh diet: is the. more, expensive; indeed, when largely 
indulged in, is a scandalous extravagance. But inas- 
much' as we, are ' guided . to food — not indeed by pure 
instinct,: butcby habit, which takes the place of instinct — 
^nd as our.- taste generally, demands what is habitual, 
most persons: are incredulous as to unusual dishes, and 
in%JsXXh^Vsoupe viaigre must always be a * meagre ' thing, 
^nd that without at least meat-gravies we could not have 
^kJflltlNltataUe dinners. 

.Only: the few have strength of mind to resist the 
tyranny of customary tastes. Yet it is certain that the 
zest of food mainly depends on a healthy stomach and a 
keeii appetite ; and that the vegetable world has courit- 
lC8|j, delicious flavours, far outnumbering those of the few 
animals whose flesh we eat. There is no basis for the 



ESSAYS ON DIET, 8i 

prejudice which here is often so obstinate. To begin 
with broth : the broth from peas, beans, or lentils is far 
superior to that from mutton. The flavour given by celery, 
with onions or leeks, to vegetable soup competes with any- 
thing that flesh can give. Mushrooms of several kinds 
surpass in dielicacyand flavour the best of chops and steaks, 
which indeed often owe much to mushroom ketchup or 
horse-radish sauce, or tomatoes, or capers, not to mention 
pepper and salt, curry and spices. The very cheap 
savoury herbs, which the poorest person can command, are 
numerous — as mint, thyme, lemon thyme, sage, fennel, 
tarragon, marjoram, horse-radish ; from which, with 
ketchup or celery, compounds niay be made, giving 
flavour to every combination of leaves or roots, or to grain 
and pulse, without thinking of milk or eggs, or even 
cheese. 

It is only prejudice and ignorance of cookery that 
keeps people incredulous. But for this very reason it is a 
matter of first-rate importance to have in every great 
town at least one vegetarian room, with substantial and 
pleasant dinners, at a price not to exceed sixpence. This 
can easily be done, and would be done in a month's time 
only that the Vegetarian Society is very poor, and cannot 
run risks with its narrow funds. Nor need such a shop fail 
of success, if a right selection be made of its conductor. 
He (or she) must be a thorough vegetarian at hearty 
zealous for the cause, as well as clever in business, and up 
to the mark in cookery. 

Such an establishment would have an immense 
advantage over an ordinary eating-house, in the fact that 
grain, potatoes, and pulse, which are the staple in Vege- 
tarianism, all keep a long time quite unharmed, while 
flesh is quickly spoilt. This is one of the causes why 
* licensed victuallers ' have degenerated into mere drink- 

G 



82 ESSAYS ON DIET, 

sellers. Beer and gin keep well, and meat does not Of 
course, nothing but trial will convince the public how 
advantageous and satisfactory are vegetarian dinners. So 
far every such attempt succeeds, where things go on by 
routine and order. Judgment is constantly needed, when to 
make large purchases, how to select, for what to prepare ; 
until it be certain what class of dishes and what form of 
food is most popular. Philanthropy and wealth are often 
found closely combined If a few rich men, anxious for 
the public welfare, would take this task in hand, consult- 
ing with the Vegetarian Society, they might soon have very 
gratifying success. 

It may be well here to name, that any one, without 
pledge as to his diet, may become an Associate of the Vege- 
tarian Society by a simple declaration that he desires to 
promote the diffusion of their literature, and by subscribing 
5^. annually to their funds ; which will entitle him to 
receive their monthly organ, the Dietetic Reformer. The 
patron of a vegetarian eating house, by becoming an 
associate of the society, would obtain their zealous co- 
operation, but of course would remain uncontrolled on 
his own ground. 

Some years ago a challenge was made and accepted 
in Birmingham, which bears directly on the subject now 
treated. A vegetarian, twitted by an opponent with the 
expensiveness of his cookery, declared that he could give 
a dinner to twelve persons for five shillings. The oppo- 
nent nailed him to his word, and defied him to make it 
good. It had been uttered rashly, yet he proceeded to 
justify himself. The conditions were written down. The 
dinner was to be (i) satisfying to the appetite ; (2) grate- 
ful to the taste ; (3) not displeasing to the eye : the price 
of the articles was not to exceed fi\^ shillings, but the price 
of coals and cookery was not to be included, 



ESSAYS ON DIET, 



83 



In the result, not twelve persons only, but sixteen 
joined in the dinner. It consisted of soup, potatoes, 
vegetable marrows stuffed with sage and onions, and 
baked ; plum pudding, apple pie, damson pie and small 
damson tart. The company was abundantly satisfied, and 
the gentleman who had challenged was foremost in con- 
fessing that the conditions had been honourably fulfilled. 
The bill was then produced, by which it appeared that 
the cost had been one halfpenny less than the stipulated 
five shillings. It stood thus : — 



s. d. 

15 lbs. potatoes o 9 

2I lbs. flour o 6^ 

i lb. butter o 7 

Vegetable marrows .... o 9 

Sage and onions o 2 

Split peas o 2 

Celery and carrots * o i^ 



5» d. 
Apples and damsons ... o loj 
Raisins and currants ... o 6 

Sugar o 3 

Milk o 2 

Candied peel o i 



Total 4 iij 



On reading the names of the dishes, it might seem 
that the sweet predominated over the savoury ; but the 
expense shows nearly 3^. to the savoury and 2s, to the 
sweets. It will be remarked that the small sum of 2d, 
gave milk for sixteen persons, while butter claimed the 
larger sum of 7^. Together this is only gd, out of 5^. 

Of course this dinner is only one out of a hundred 
that might be given ; indeed, it is not every one who likes 
vegetable marrow, nor is it easy to believe it substantial. 
One may judge that the potatoes and the peas, giving 
starch and nitrogen, bore the brunt of the battle on this 
occasion ; but the fruit also (costing i^\d, with the sugar) 
gave no despicable aid. Apples are often as cheap as 
potatoes, and it is said they might be much cheaper. Of 
all food, in most climates, fruit produces the maximum 
yield from a given area. In Ceylon it may be in cocoa- 

G 2 



84 ESSAYS ON DIET, 

nuts, in the plains of India from SQine other palm or from 
bananas ; in France, chestnuts rare .most productive ; in 
England it may be cobnuts, or it maybe appl^ ; and the 
union of the two is as admirable in food as bread and 
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